Phenological change in a spring ephemeral: implications for pollination and plant fitness - Zachariah J. Gezon; Rebecca E. Irwin; David W. Inouye (Global Change Biology, 2016)
Climate change has had numerous ecological effects, including species range shifts and altered phenology. Altering flowering phenology often affects plant reproduction, but the mechanisms behind these changes are not well-under- stood. To investigate why altering flowering phenology affects plant reproduction, we manipulated flowering phe- nology of the spring herb Claytonia lanceolata (Portulacaceae) using two methods: in 2011–2013 by altering snow pack (snow-removal vs. control treatments), and in 2013 by inducing flowering in a greenhouse before placing plants in experimental outdoor arrays (early, control, and late treatments). We measured flowering phenology, pollinator visi- tation, plant reproduction (fruit and seed set), and pollen limitation. Flowering occurred approx. 10 days earlier in snow-removal than control plots during all years of snow manipulation. Pollinator visitation patterns and strength of pollen limitation varied with snow treatments, and among years. Plants in the snow removal treatment were more likely to experience frost damage, and frost-damaged plants suffered low reproduction despite lack of pollen limita- tion. Plants in the snow removal treatment that escaped frost damage had higher pollinator visitation rates and repro- duction than controls. The results of the array experiment supported the results of the snow manipulations. Plants in the early and late treatments suffered very low reproduction due either to severe frost damage (early treatment) or low pollinator visitation (late treatment) relative to control plants. Thus, plants face tradeoffs with advanced flower- ing time. While early-flowering plants can reap the benefits of enhanced pollination services, they do so at the cost of increased susceptibility to frost damage that can overwhelm any benefit of flowering early. In contrast, delayed flow- ering results in dramatic reductions in plant reproduction through reduced pollination. Our results suggest that cli- mate change may constrain the success of early-flowering plants not through plant-pollinator mismatch but through the direct impacts of extreme environmental conditions.

Effects of climate change on phenologies and distributions of bumble bees and the plants they visit - G. H. Pyke; James D. Thomson; Tom E. X. Miller; David W. Inouye (Ecosphere, 2016)
AbstractSurveys of bumble bees and the plants they visit, carried out in 1974 near the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory in Colorado, were repeated in 2007, thus permitting the testing of hypotheses arising from observed climate change over the intervening 33‐yr period. As expected, given an increase in average air temperature with climate warming and a declining temperature with increasing elevation, there have been significant shifts toward higher elevation for queens or workers or both, for most bumble bee species, for bumble bee queens when species are combined, and for two focal plant species, with no significant downward shifts. However, contrary to our hypotheses, we failed to observe significant altitudinal changes for some bumble bee species and most plant species, and observed changes in elevation were often less than the upward shift of 317 m required to maintain average temperature. As expected, community flowering phenology shifted toward earlier in the season throughout our study area, but bumble bee phenology generally did not change, resulting in decreased synchrony between bees and plants. However, we were unable to confirm the narrower expectation that phenologies of bumble bee workers and community flowering coincided in 1974 but not in 2007. As expected, because of reduced synchrony between bumble bees and community flowering, bumble bee abundance was reduced in 2007 compared with 1974. Hence, climate change in our study area has apparently resulted primarily in reduced abundance and upward shift in distribution for bumble bees and shift toward earlier seasonality for plant flowering. Quantitative disagreements between climate change expectations and our observations warrant further investigation.

Discriminating Quartzite Sources Petrographically in the Upper Gunnison Basin, Colorado: Implications for Paleoamerican Lithic-Procurement Studies - Cody L. Dalpra; Bonnie L. Pitblado (PaleoAmerica, 2016)
Archaeologists lack a protocol for systematically attributing quartzite artifacts to particular geologic sources of the material. This paper, in an effort to begin to remedy that situation, reports the preliminary results of a petrographic study of quartzite samples from the Upper Gunnison Basin (UGB), Colorado. In that region, the overwhelming predominance of quartzite (often > 90 per cent) at most archaeological sites has hampered efforts to ascertain with any certainty the mobility strategies of Paleoamerican (and later) residents. In this study, qualitative and quantitative characterization of texture and grain composition of 50 UGB quartzite specimens led to the identification of six statistically distinct groups of samples. The groups are not arbitrary divisions of the data set; rather, they are meaningful from geologic, geospatial, chronological, and human-behavioral perspectives.

Competitive context drives pollinator behavior: linking foraging plasticity, natural pollen deposition, and plant reproduction. - Heather M. Briggs (2016)
Understanding the functional impacts of pollinator species losses on plant populations is critical given ongoing pollinator declines. Simulation models of pollination networks suggest that plant communities will be resilient to losing many or even most of the pollinator species in an ecosystem. These predictions, however, have not been tested empirically and implicitly assume that pollination efficiency is unaffected by interactions with interspecific competitors. By contrast, ecological theory and data from a wide range of ecosystems show that interspecific competition can drive variation in ecological specialization over short timescales via behavioral or morphological plasticity, though the potential ecosystem functional implications of such changes in specialization remain unexplored. We conducted manipulative field experiments in which we temporarily removed single pollinator species from study plots, to test the hypothesis that interactions between pollinator species can shape individual species’ functional roles via changes in foraging specialization. We show that loss of a single pollinator species reduces floral fidelity (short-term specialization) in the remaining pollinators, with significant ecosystem functional implications in terms of reduced plant reproductive output, even when potentially effective pollinators remained in the system. Our results suggest that ongoing pollinator declines may have more serious negative implications for plant communities than is currently assumed. More broadly, we show that the individual functional contributions of species can be dynamic and shaped by the community of interspecific competitors, thereby documenting a new mechanism for how 8 biodiversity can drive ecosystem services and functions, with potential relevance to a wide range of taxa and systems. 9

Productivity of Montane Meadows in a Warming World: Evidence from an Elevation Gradient and a Warming Experiment - Amanda Henderson (2016)
Climate change is expected to disproportionately impact high elevation ecosystems by disrupting current temperature and precipitation regimes. The future carbon balance of these systems is uncertain, given the interplay between longer growing season length and the potential for increased drought. Currently, the most robust inferences about ecosystem responses to changing climate come from the integration of experimental and observational methods. In this thesis, I utilize evidence from a warming experiment and an elevational gradient to gain insights into how aspects of ecosystem productivity and community functional composition change in response to the abiotic environment. First, I show that ecosystem productivity was similar in the heated and ambient treatment groups of the warming experiment. Net ecosystem productivity (NEP) was similar between treatments with only slightly increased NEP in the early season in the heated treatment. Important leaf functional traits (leaf mass per area, LMA; leaf dry matter content, LDMC) shifted with heating in directions associated with higher productivity, both at the community level and within species. While these results are counterintuitive, potential insight was provided by a soil cooling effect found in the heated plots in the early season. Second, I investigate ecosystem productivity across spatial and temporal gradients using phenology cameras. I show strong relationships between greenness indices generated from camera images and on-the-ground measurements of gross primary productivity (GPP). I also used changes in greenness indices early season to infer green-up rates, and found a strong pattern of increasing green-up rate with increasing elevation. Together, these studies highlight the importance of comparing experimental and gradient methods to assess how different spatial and temporal scales influence our conclusions about the effect of climate change on ecosystems. 6

Do Social Interactions Decrease Basal Stress Levels In Breeding Female Yellow-Bellied Marmots? - X. Ortiz Ross (2016)
In order for sociality to exist, the benefits must outweigh the costs. Benefits include better territorial defense, co-operative foraging, and predator avoidance. Costs include increased disease transmission, intraspecific competition for resources or mates, and reproductive suppression. One way to examine the costs and benefits of group living is to assess the impact of social stressors on basal glucocorticoid (GC) levels. In certain species, social interactions such as grooming have been shown to decrease basal GC levels. Since elevated levels of GC have been shown to increase mortality and decrease reproductive rates, decreased stress levels could be a benefit of social living. We investigated whether social interactions decreased stress levels in breeding female yellow-bellied marmots. We found that relationship strength, not the number of relationships, decreased stress levels in females both before and soon after their litter emergence, supporting our hypothesis that decreased basal stress levels can be a benefit of social group living.

Colorado’s Water Wars Begin, 1920–1940 - Steven C. Schulte (University Press of Colorado eBooks, 2016)

Caddisfly behavioral responses to drying cues in temporary ponds: Implications for effects of climate change - J. O. Lund; B. L. Peckarsky; S. A. Wissinger (Freshwater Science, 2016)
Aquatic organisms that live at high latitudes and elevations are especially vulnerable to climate-change-induced alterations in snowpack, snowmelt, and evaporation rates, all of which affect basin filling and drying dates. Extraordinarily early drying events in shallow ponds and wetlands at our study sites prompted us to conduct 2 mesocosm experiments to document how proximate cues of drying modify agonistic behaviors among larvae of the caddisfly, Asynarchus nigriculus. Larvae are mainly detritivores but can be extremely aggressive and engage in mob cannibalism, perhaps to obtain a dietary supplement that hastens escape from drying basins. In one experiment, we manipulated caddisfly density to simulate the effects of crowding during pond drying. In a 2nd experiment, we reduced water levels and manipulated a protein supplement that mimics the dietary benefits of cannibalism. We quantified the effects of those manipulations on aggressive behaviors that are precursors to cannibalism and on development time to pupation. Frequency and duration of agonistic encounters increased as a function of larval density and, independent of density, were higher in drying than nondrying treatments, especially in the absence of a protein supplement. Pupation occurred earlier in high- than low-density treatments and earlier with than without a protein supplement. In contrast, the timing of pupation was not accelerated in drying compared with nondrying treatments, which might reflect the extreme diel temperature fluctuations in drying ponds, hence suboptimal growth conditions. Our findings provide evidence that declining water levels and crowding serve as cues that enable caddisflies to adjust behavior and development in the face of habitat drying. Early drying events observed in recent years may exceed the limits of this flexibility and portend the demise of populations in temporary habitats that historically supported this species.

Morphological and physiological determinants of local adaptation to climate in Rocky Mountain butterflies - L. B. Buckley; J. G. Kingsolver; H. J. MacLean; J. K. Higgins (Conservation Physiology, 2016)
Flight is a central determinant of fitness in butterflies and other insects, but it is restricted to a limited range of body temperatures. To achieve these body temperatures, butterflies use a combination of morphological, behavioural and physiological mechanisms. Here, we used common garden (without direct solar radiation) and reciprocal transplant (full solar radiation) experiments in the field to determine the thermal sensitivity of flight initiation for two species of Colias butterflies along an elevation gradient in the southwestern Rocky Mountains. The mean body temperature for flight initiation in the field was lower (24-26°C) than indicated by previous studies (28-30°C) in these species. There were small but significant differences in thermal sensitivity of flight initiation between species; high-elevation Colias meadii initiated flight at a lower mean body temperature than lower-elevation Colias eriphyle. Morphological differences (in wing melanin and thoracic setae) drive body temperature differences between species and contributed strongly to differences in the time and probability of flight and air temperatures at flight initiation. Our results suggest that differences both in thermal sensitivity (15% contribution) and in morphology (85% contribution) contribute to the differences in flight initiation between the two species in the field. Understanding these differences, which influence flight performance and fitness, aids in forecasting responses to climate change.

Effects of Insect Damage to Helianthella quinquenervis (Asteraceae) Inflorescences on Pollinator Visitation - K. Spells (2016)
Plant reproductive success is often influenced by not only direct effects of flower-eating herbivores (florivores) consuming floral tissues, but also the indirect effects of pollinator visitation. Previous literature suggests that florivore damage can negatively influence pollinator visitation, consequently having both direct and indirect effects on plant reproductive fitness. Studies have also shown that conspecific and heterospecific floral density can increase or decrease pollinator visitation. Here I determine the effects of inflorescence damage on pollinator visitation rate of a common perennial native to the Rocky Mountains, the aspen sunflower (Helianthella quinquenervis, Asteraceae). Damage on both the ray florets and disk florets of the sunflowers were found to decrease visitation of their two most common pollinators, bumble bees (Bombus spp.) and Muscid flies (Muscidae). Visitation rate was also observed for co-flowering heterospecifics of Helianthella within 1x1 meter observation plots to determine if damaged sunflower inflorescences influenced the visitation of blooming neighbors. However, data was insufficient to observe any effects. With Helianthella experiencing phenological shifts due to climate change—blooming earlier in early snowmelt years—floral abundance has declined due to frost susceptibility (Inouye 2008). Given that florivore damage also directly and indirectly affects plant fitness, it may be possible that Helianthella will experience an accelerated decline in abundance due to and increase in florivore competition and a decrease in pollinator visitation.

Abiotic mediation of a mutualism drives herbivore abundance. - C. V. Tillberg; J. S. Phillips; C. A. Sandrow; Emily H Mooney; Kailen A. Mooney; Annika S. Nelson (Ecology Letters, 2016)

Site fidelity by bees drives pollination facilitation in sequentially blooming plant species - James D. Thomson; Jane E. Ogilvie (Ecology, 2016)
AbstractPlant species can influence the pollination and reproductive success of coflowering neighbors that share pollinators. Because some individual pollinators habitually forage in particular areas, it is also possible that plant species could influence the pollination of neighbors that bloom later. When flowers of a preferred forage plant decline in an area, site‐fidelity may cause individual flower feeders to stay in an area and switch plant species rather than search for preferred plants in a new location. A newly blooming plant species may quickly inherit a set of visitors from a prior plant species, and therefore experience higher pollination success than it would in an area where the first species never bloomed. To test this, we manipulated the placement and timing of two plant species, Delphinium barbeyi and later‐blooming Gentiana parryi. We recorded the responses of individually marked bumble bee pollinators. About 63% of marked individuals returned repeatedly to the same areas to forage on Delphinium. When Delphinium was experimentally taken out of bloom, most of those site‐faithful individuals (78%) stayed and switched to Gentiana. Consequently, Gentiana flowers received more visits in areas where Delphinium had previously flowered, compared to areas where Delphinium was still flowering or never occurred. Gentiana stigmas received more pollen in areas where Delphinium disappeared than where it never bloomed, indicating that Delphinium increases the pollination of Gentiana when they are separated in time. Overall, we show that individual bumble bees are often site‐faithful, causing one plant species to increase the pollination of another even when separated in time, which is a novel mechanism of pollination facilitation.

Running of the buffalo: investigations of the Roberts Ranch Buffalo Jump (5LR100), northern Colorado - Knight, Richard L.; Pante, Michael C.; LaBelle, Jason M.; Christopher M. Johnston (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2016)
Since the Roberts Ranch Buffalo Jump (5LR100) was first reported on in 1971, there has been a great deal of research on bison kills and faunal analysis, as well as advancements in analytic techniques, that can now be applied to the collection from the site. Much of the collection was reported in a thesis by Max Witkind in 1971; however, some of these data are being presented here for the first time. The site is dated to approximately between A.D. 1660-1750 and consists of the remains of at minimum 19 bison adult and sub-adult bison, as well as at minimum eight fetal bison. This thesis examines the collection from three different perspectives. It starts by analyzing the non-bone artifact assemblage, which includes different styles of arrow points, at least two different ceramic traditions, and a modified bone assemblage. These data show that much of the past site activities focused on butchery and processing of bison, but other activities were also carried out at the site. The next section utilizes faunal analysis methods not yet developed when the site was first reported to explore the bison assemblage in more detail. This analysis shows some non-cultural impacts to the collection, but largely documents that the bonebed is the result of human butchery and processing decisions. These two data sets are then analyzed spatially. The results show patterned clusters of artifacts around the main bone concentrations, offering new insights on how to incorporate a site structure approach at mass kill sites. Lastly, this thesis illustrates the value of applying new methods to older archaeological collections.

PENGARUH EKUITAS MEREK TERHADAP MINAT BELI ULANG PADA KEDAI KOPI BLACK CANYON MALL JAMTOS - S. U. K. M. A. BAKTI (Jurnal Manajemen Terapan dan Keuangan, 2016)
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui Pengaruh   Ekuitas Merek  Terhadap  Minat Beli Ulang  Pada Kedai  Kopi  Black Canyon Mall Jamtos Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di Pada Kedai  Kopi  Black Canyon Mall Jamtos . Model penelitian yang digunakan yakni dengan metode observasi, wawancara, kuesioner dan studi kepustakaan yang dilakukan secara sistematik berdasarkan tujuan penelitian. Metode analisis yang digunakan adalah dengan metode analisis regresi linear berganda, dengan menggunakan uji hipotesis yaitu uji F dan uji t. Kemudian menggunakan perhitungan korelasi regresi berganda  untuk mengetahui seberapa besar pengaruh dan signifikansi Pengaruh   Ekuitas Merek  Terhadap  Minat Beli Ulang  Pada Kedai  Kopi  Black Canyon Mall JamtosDari hasil analisis regresi dapat diketahui persamaan regresi berganda sebagai berikut: Y = 1,327 + 0,433X1 + 0,167X2 + 0,228X3 + e . Berdasarkan uji t, hasil yang diperoleh bahwa semua variabel ekuitas merek yaitu kesadaran merek,citra merek dan persepsi kualitas secara parsial   berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap minat beli ulang.  Dari penelitian ini dapat disimpulkan berdasarkan uji statistik bahwa variabel ekuitas merek  secara bersama-sama (simultan-uji F) memiliki pengaruh yang positif terhadap variabel keputusan pembelian  . Dari penelitian ini diperoleh nilai Adjusted R Square sebesar 0,62 Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sebesar 62,9 % .

Sixty-five years of change in montane plant communities in Western Colorado, USA - Stephanie Zorio; K. A. Aho; C.F. (Rick) Williams (Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 2016)
Documenting and predicting patterns of vegetation change over time are challenging due to a lack of sufficiently detailed historical data for comparison. Montane plant communities are expected to respond to anthropogenic disturbance, including climate change, in complex ways dependent on component species' responses to changing abiotic and biotic conditions. To investigate the patterns and possible causes of temporal changes in montane plant communities, we resampled 121 transects surveyed by Jean Langenheim from 1948 to 1952 in the East River Basin near Crested Butte, Colorado, U.S.A. Langenheim quantified the composition of the four predominant community types (sagebrush, spruce-fir, upland-herbaceous, and alpine) at sites ranging from 2600 to 4100 m in elevation. Our resurvey of the same sites 65 years later revealed that all four communities currently have much higher levels of heterogeneity among sites and have experienced significant changes in species composition and dominance. Compositional changes include significant increases in bare ground, graminoid and shrub abundance, and loss of forbs, at higher elevations. Species' mean elevations shifted upward 41 m, and many species expanded their ranges into new communities. Elevation shifts were most pronounced from lower elevation communities, while many alpine species shifted their ranges into lower subalpine meadow communities.

Solutions for archiving data in long-term studies - a reply to Whitlock et al. - D. Reale; P. H. Becker; D. F. Westneat; B. Doligez; N. J. Dingemanse; H. Drummond; A. Margalida; F. Daunt; T. Part; L. Lens; A. Zedrosser; J. C. Coulson; et al. (Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 2016)
The objective of the recent paper was to define practices to simultaneously maximize the benefits and minimize the potential unwanted consequences of PDA.

Testing for the genetic basis of cold tolerance in a wild mustard - W. De Vries (2016)
Overwinter survival and cold tolerance are complex quantitative traits that are important in understanding adaptation to different environments. I evaluated 422 genotypes of Boechera stricta, originating form different geographic locations and elevations, in a common garden genome wide association study (GWAS) experiment in the Rocky Mountains. I measured overwinter survival in 3895 GWAS plants that have been fully sequenced as a part of the original experiment. Using sequenced genetic information from the plants, I looked for correlations between survival and genetic variation in a quantitative trait locus previously implicated in cold tolerance adaptation in this species. I found variation in overwinter survival across broad population groups reflecting different genetic and evolutionary histories, as well as in relation to one aspect of genetic variation within the quantitative trait locus specifically. The population groups Utah and West had higher survival rates than those from Colorado in the Colorado common garden experiment. In a test for local adaptation, population group was a significant predictor of overwinter survival, while elevation, latitude and longitude were not. This indicates that the cold tolerance trait is likely not locally adapted.

Drought, pollen and nectar availability, and pollination success - Mary V. Price; Nickolas M. Waser (Ecology, 2016)
AbstractPollination success of animal‐pollinated flowers depends on rate of pollinator visits and on pollen deposition per visit, both of which should vary with the pollen and nectar “neighborhoods” of a plant, i.e., with pollen and nectar availability in nearby plants. One determinant of these neighborhoods is per‐flower production of pollen and nectar, which is likely to respond to environmental influences. In this study, we explored environmental effects on pollen and nectar production and on pollination success in order to follow up a surprising result from a previous study: flowers of Ipomopsis aggregata received less pollen in years of high visitation by their hummingbird pollinators. A new analysis of the earlier data indicated that high bird visitation corresponded to drought years. We hypothesized that drought might contribute to the enigmatic prior result if it decreases both nectar and pollen production: in dry years, low nectar availability could cause hummingbirds to visit flowers at a higher rate, and low pollen availability could cause them to deposit less pollen per visit. A greenhouse experiment demonstrated that drought does reduce both pollen and nectar production by I. aggregata flowers. This result was corroborated across 6 yr of variable precipitation and soil moisture in four unmanipulated field populations. In addition, experimental removal of pollen from flowers reduced the pollen received by nearby flowers. We conclude that there is much to learn about how abiotic and biotic environmental drivers jointly affect pollen and nectar production and availability, and how this contributes to pollen and nectar neighborhoods and thus influences pollination success.

Effects of Helianthella quinquenervis Extrafloral Nectaries on Ant Abundance and Community Structure - J. Schurkman (2016)
The beneficial effects of ants to myrmecophilous species is well established, but there is little empirical evidence demonstrating the benefits of such interactions for ants. The intent of this experiment was to determine how ants are affected by their interaction with the Aspen sunflower (Helianthella quinquenervis). Ants forage on Aspen sunflower extra floral nectaries (EFN) as a carbohydrate source. Twenty 7 m diameter plots were established in a field site (Maxfield Meadow) located at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory in Gothic Colorado. Half of the plots had EFN removed, the others did not. Through pitfall traps it was found that four groups of ants occupy the meadow, Tapinoma sessile, Myrmicinae, Formica fusca, and Formica rufa. By doing visual surveys of plant stems, it was found that Formica fusca and Tapinoma sessile are the predominant taxa foraging on EFN. Forager and colony abundance was not affected by EFN removal based upon pitfall trapping and examination of artificial nesting structures (bricks), respectively. However ants within the EFN removal plots recruited to (marginally significant) and consumed significantly more 20% sugar solution baits than do the ants within the control plots. These findings gave evidence that ants do not necessarily depend on EFN from Aspen sunflowers as a carbohydrate source, however, they utilize the carbohydrate source as much as possible, and most likely receive less carbohydrates when they are deprived of EFN.

Sex-specific responses to climate change in plants alter population sex ratios and performance. - Judith D. Soule; Ana Chicas-Mosier; William K. Petry; Tom E. X. Miller; Kailen A. Mooney; Amy M. Iler; David W. Inouye (Science, 2016)
Changing sex ratiosClimate-warming temperatures might be expected to affect the sex ratio of species if sex determination is temperature-dependent. Petryet al.show that indirect climate effects could also alter sex ratios in species in which sex is genetically determined and damage reproductive fitness (see the Perspective by Etterson and Mazer). Over four decades, sex ratios in populations of a dioecious alpine plant have shifted toward females as a result of the different water needs of the male and female plants. The lack of males has reduced the reproductive success and fitness of the females. Similar subtle differences between sexes in environmental sensitivities could eventually lead to population declines.Science, this issue p.69; see also p.32

How diploidization turned a tetraploid into a pseudotriploid - M. A. Lysak; T. Mandakova; A. D. Gloss; Noah K Whiteman (American Journal of Botany, 2016)

The Colorado River Revisited - Jason Anthony Robison (SSRN Electronic Journal, 2016)

Colorado's Water: A Problem Rooted in Geography and History - Steven C. Schulte (University Press of Colorado eBooks, 2016)

Populations of aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) with different evolutionary histories differ in their climate occupancy - Christina Tague; G. T. Howe; D. A. Roberts; B. T. Greer; Christopher Still (Ecology and Evolution, 2016)
AbstractQuaking aspens (Populus tremuloides Michx.) are found in diverse habitats throughout North America. While the biogeography of aspens' distribution has been documented, the drivers of the phenotypic diversity of aspen are still being explored. In our study, we examined differences in climate between northern and southwestern populations of aspen, finding large‐scale differences between the populations. Our results suggest that northern and southwestern populations live in distinct climates and support the inclusion of genetic and phenotypic data with species distribution modeling for predicting aspens' distribution.

Altitudinal gradients do not predict plant-symbiont responses to experimental warming. - Melanie R Kazenel (2016)

Reproductive Ecology of Female Golden-Mantled Ground Squirrels - Caitlin P. Wells (2016)

Mysteries of road dust: Does road dust influence flower lifespan in scarlet gilia? - D. A. Lopez (2016)
This study aims to explore the exciting mysteries of road dust. In the beautiful Rocky Mountains, at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory in western Colorado, there is an amazing diversity of plants, but one in particular near unpaved roads is Ipomopsis aggregata, Scarlet gilia, a perennial flowering plant. In this paper I unveil the effects that road dust has on the stigma closure rates on Ipomopsis aggregata. To find out this mystery, armed with a hand lens and a duster, I keep track of 216 individual flowers to see the influence of road dust. Interestingly, road dust decreases floral lifespan, and female longevity. The stigma position in these flowers also plays a role in the floral lifespan of this plant, with weather having surprising effect. With all these factors, the evidence suggests that road dust influences stigma closure rates, and therefore influence the pollen loads.

A framework for assessing feasibility of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) project sites - Strong, Kelly C.; Avi Sharma; Ozbek, Mehmet E.; Francis, James (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2016)
After the Second World War, America saw a decline in ridership on transit systems which eventually resulted in the dismantling and abandonment of many rail systems. The primary mode of public transportation shifted from transit to buses, which used the same streets and competed with the same infrastructure capacity as automobiles. For this reason, bus systems also started to fail when people realized that if they have to wait for the traffic, they might as well do it in their own automobile, which provides higher flexibility of timing and route (Ditmar, Belzer and Autler, 2004). This shift, in effect, resulted in more congestion. To counter the problem of congestion resulting from modern urbanization, society developed the idea of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD). TOD (or similar concepts like transit village, transit-friendly design, and transit-supportive development) is a type of development designed in a fashion that encourages the use of public transit and the creation of pedestrian-friendly environments (TCRP, 2002). This thesis answers the following fundamental questions: How can a transit agency choose among alternative TOD locations within a transit network and what is the importance of each factor? This includes development of a framework which can be used by different transit agencies by incorporating their factors and weights using multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) tool called Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The thesis also presents the implementation of this framework for Regional Transportation District (RTD) and Roaring Fork Transportation Authority (RFTA).

Larval feeding behavior and leaf components that affect the survival of Pieris macdunnoughii on the invasive mustard Thlaspi arvense - L. M. Fisher (2016)
Pieris macdunnoughii, a butterfly native to the Rock Mountains in Colorado, is a specialist on mustard plants. An invasive mustard, Thlaspi arvense, introduced approximately 100 years ago creates an evolutionary trap for P. macdunnoughii due to the chemical signals that encourage ovipositioning, but it does not support larval development. Such interactions suggest larvae will develop means to successfully feed on T. arvense. First instar feeding behavior on T. arvense was compared to behavior on native host plants, Cardamine cordifolia and Descurainia incana. In laboratory trials, larvae were given T. arvense or C. cordifolia and photographed in two hour intervals for gut content. The results show that larvae fill their guts soon after encountering C. cordifolia, but for T. arvense larvae eat only small amounts of leaves and hardly fill their guts, exhibiting deterrent properties. Similar patterns of herbivory were observed in field trials where larvae were placed on either T. arvense or C. cordifolia, though larvae in the lab filled their guts more than those in the field. In a feeding assay with sinigrin, a glucosinolate believed to be the precursor in a metabolic pathway that produces hydrogen cyanide, 50μmol of sinigrin per gram of leaf mass were added to T. arvense, C. cordifolia, and D. incana leaves and fed to larvae along with control leaves painted with water. The results suggest larvae perform best on D. incana despite added sinigrin and sinigrin has deterrent effects for all species and increases larval death.

The Effects of Ants on Ecosystem Dynamics: Investigating the Ecological Influence of Ant Nests in the Rocky Mountains - W. Arnold (2016)
Formica obscuripes, or the Western Thatching Ant, is a native North American ant species commonly found throughout the central and western US. Like many ant species, F. obscuripes acts as an ecosystem engineer, as colonies can significantly alter the nutrient content, moisture content, temperature, and pH of the soil when constructing and maintaining their nests. And while the immediate effects of F. obscuripes on the local environment are well known, it is not quite well understood how these shifts in the physical and chemical properties of the substrate affect larger ecosystem processes. As many plant and fungal species are sensitive to factors such as soil moisture and nutrient availability, we hypothesized these biotic communities would alter in composition, abundance, and diversity as ants altered the immediate environment. We explored the effect of ant nests on soil properties, plant community composition, and belowground fungal communities. As part of that, we sampled and assessed plant community composition, pathogen loads, and fungal colonization of abundant plant species in a sagebrush meadow in Colorado’s Almont Triangle. While we found that soil below ant nests was indeed drier and warmer than the surrounding soil, we did not find a significant difference in arbuscular mycorrhizae (AMF) or dark septate endophyte (DSE) colonization for our focal species, Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus. However, we did find that the presence of ant nests was related to an increase in the abundance of oomycete root pathogens for C. viscidiflorus. Furthermore, we found that plant diversity on and around ant nests increased as nests aged and became inactive, while the presence of woody species, especially, Symphoricarpos rotundifolius, increased with nest proximity and activity. Moreover, we found that not only was the presence of S. rotundifolius correlated with ant nest activity, its roots also saw elevated levels of AMF colonization. And though its abundance was unaffected by nest presence, A. tridentata saw increased rates of colonization by DSE when occurring on ant nests. Thus, while ants may create warmer, drier, and more nutrient dense environments, fungal and plant responses will differ between species, as mutualisms and unique mechanisms lead species and partners to experience differential success.

Paleoindian archaeology of the Upper Gunnison Basin, Colorado Rocky Mountains - Bonnie L. Pitblado (North American Archaeologist, 2016)
The past two decades have seen a fluorescence of work at Paleoindian sites in Colorado’s Upper Gunnison Basin (UGB). This article presents and synthesizes the results of that work in two parts, the first, a landscape-scale analysis of 82 UGB Paleoindian components as reported in Colorado state site files; the second, a higher-resolution analysis of Paleoindian sites excavated in recent years. Conclusions include that starting as early as Folsom time, Paleoindian groups occupied the UGB year-round, and that UGB Paleoindian settlement strategies varied significantly both synchronically and diachronically. Both findings relate in large part to the enormously diverse resource base of the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene Rocky Mountains in general and UGB in particular.

Historical changes in thermoregulatory traits of alpine butterflies reveal complex ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change - J. G. Kingsolver; H. J. MacLean; L. B. Buckley (Climate Change Responses, 2016)
Background: Trait evolution and plasticity are expected to interactively influence responses to climate change, but rapid changes in and increased variability of temperature may limit evolutionary responses. We use historical specimens to document changes in the size and thermoregulatory traits of a montane butterfly, Colias meadii, in Colorado, USA over the past 60 years (1953–2012). We quantify forewing wing length, ventral wing melanin that increases solar absorption, and the length of thorax setae that reduces convective heat loss. Results: The mean of all three traits has increased during this time period despite climate warming. Phenological shifts may have extended the active season earlier at low elevations and later at high elevations, increasing exposure to cool temperatures and selecting for increases in thermoregulatory traits. Fitness increases at higher elevations due to warming could also increase thermoregulatory traits. Warmer temperatures during pupal development and later flight dates in the season are associated with decreased wing melanin, indicating a role of phenotypic plasticity in historical trait changes. Conclusions: Phenotypic shifts result from a complex interplay of ecological and evolutionary responses to climate change. Environmental variability within and across seasons can limit the evolutionary responses of populations to increasing mean temperatures during climate change.

Stare Decisis: Dueling Legal Interpretations of the Douglas County, Colorado Choice Scholarship Program - Robert A. Fox (Journal of School Choice, 2016)
In the absence of incontrovertible performance data in support of, or opposition to, school vouchers, court decisions on their legality become increasingly important. Analysis of legal challenges provides a rich opportunity for scholars and policymakers to follow arguments for or against their positions. We present a chronicle of the litigation history of the Douglas County, Colorado Choice Scholarship Program; a voucher program incorporating religious-based “public school partners” in which voucher recipients may enroll. We take particular notice of the differences in the way identical fact bases are interpreted by successive jurists. At this writing, the Choice Scholarship Program has been permanently enjoined from operating but further appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court would surprise no one.

Floodplain Price Impacts by Property Type in Boulder County, Colorado: Condominiums Versus Standalone Properties - James R. Meldrum (Environmental and Resource Economics, 2016)

Strain diversity and host specificity in a specialized gut symbiont of honeybees and bumblebees - John Wesley Powell; N. Ratneyeke; N. A. Moran (Molecular Ecology, 2016)
AbstractHost‐restricted lineages of gut bacteria often include many closely related strains, but this fine‐scale diversity is rarely investigated. The specialized gut symbiont Snodgrassella alvi has codiversified with honeybees (Apis mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombus) for millions of years. Snodgrassella alvi strains are nearly identical for 16S rRNA gene sequences but have distinct gene repertoires potentially affecting host biology and community interactions. We examined S. alvi strain diversity within and between hosts using deep sequencing both of a single‐copy coding gene (minD) and of the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. We sampled workers from domestic and feral A. mellifera colonies and wild‐caught Bombus representing 14 species. Conventional analyses of community profiles, based on the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene, failed to expose most strain variation. In contrast, the minD analysis revealed extensive strain variation within and between host species and individuals. Snodgrassella alvi strain diversity is significantly higher in A. mellifera than in Bombus, supporting the hypothesis that colony founding by swarms of workers enables retention of more diversity than colony founding by a single queen. Most Bombus individuals (72%) are dominated by a single S. alvi strain, whereas most A. mellifera (86%) possess multiple strains. No S. alvi strains are shared between A. mellifera and Bombus, indicating some host specificity. Among Bombus‐restricted strains, some are restricted to a single host species or subgenus, while others occur in multiple subgenera. Findings demonstrate that strains diversify both within and between host species and can be highly specific or relatively generalized in their host associations.

The effects of Na pulses on subalpine ecosystems - R. Fitzpatrick (2016)
Sodium is an essential nutrient for all animals, and in terrestrial ecosystems it is often difficult for plant consumers to obtain the necessary amount of Na since plants generally do not prosper in high salt environments. While carnivores get adequate salt due to bioaccumulation from their prey, herbivores are limited by Na and often must seek out salt deposits or drink urine to maintain osmotic balance. In ecosystems far from the ocean this Na craving is thought to be even higher. In this study, I used three different experiments in and around the Gothic townsite in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado to examine the use of Na in subalpine ecosystems. These ecosystems have significant Na shortfall; plant and nectar consumers are drawn to resourcess that have higher salt concentrations. Large mammalian herbivores (e.g., deer) grazed selectively in plots sprayed with a 1% NaCl solution suggesting that they have adapted to detect even small amounts of salt. This grazing had cascading consequences: plots with higher Na were grazed more, had higher light availability, and therefore higher soil temperatures. I then examined whether plots with higher temps had higher colonization rates by ant nests. I found that there was an interaction between Na and N and between Na and heat in some instances with ​T. sessile preferring to colonize warm and salty areas suggesting that heat and Na in conjunction help to increase metabolic efficiency. Given these results, there is a strong indication that Na (though an often overlooked nutrient) may be an important limiting factor in subalpine ecosystems. Thus, with further study we may be able to better understand the activity of food webs whose biochemistry has previously been examined only through biochemical lense of N, C and P.

Captive-breeding of captive and wild-reared Gunnison sage-grouse - Lief A. Wiechman (Zoo Biology, 2016)
Gunnison sage-grouse (Centrocercus minimus) distribution in North America has decreased over historical accounts and has received federal protection under the Endangered Species Act. We investigated captive-breeding of a captive-flock of Gunnison sage-grouse created from individuals reared in captivity from wild-collected eggs we artificially incubated. We also introduced wild-reared individuals into captivity. Our captive-flock successfully bred and produced fertile eggs. We controlled the timing and duration of male-female breeding interactions and facilitated a semi-natural mating regime. Males established a strutting ground in captivity that females attended for mate selection. In 2010, we allowed females to establish eight nests, incubate, and hatch eggs. Females in captivity were more successful incubating nests than raising broods. Although there are many technical, financial, and logistic issues associated with captive-breeding, we recommend that federal biologists and managers work collaboratively with state wildlife agencies and consider developing a captive-flock as part of a comprehensive conservation strategy for a conservation-reliant species like the Gunnison sage-grouse. The progeny produced from a captive-rearing program could assist in the recovery if innovative approaches to translocation are part of a comprehensive proactive conservation program.

Persistence of high elevation fens in the Southern Rocky Mountains, on Grand Mesa, Colorado, U.S.A. - George Austin; David J. Cooper (Wetlands Ecology and Management, 2016)

The effect of demographic correlations on the stochastic population dynamics of perennial plants - Michelle E. Sneck; Bret D. Elderd; Haldre S. Rogers; Brad M. Ochocki; Hans Jacquemyn; Andrew J. Bibian; Emily L. Schultz; Aldo Compagnoni; Tom E. X. Miller; Amy M. Iler; David W. Inouye (Ecological Monographs, 2016)
AbstractUnderstanding the influence of environmental variability on population dynamics is a fundamental goal of ecology. Theory suggests that, for populations in variable environments, temporal correlations between demographic vital rates (e.g., growth, survival, reproduction) can increase (if positive) or decrease (if negative) the variability of year‐to‐year population growth. Because this variability generally decreases long‐term population viability, vital rate correlations may importantly affect population dynamics in stochastic environments. Despite long‐standing theoretical interest, it is unclear whether vital rate correlations are common in nature, whether their directions are predominantly negative or positive, and whether they are of sufficient magnitude to warrant broad consideration in studies of stochastic population dynamics. We used long‐term demographic data for three perennial plant species, hierarchical Bayesian parameterization of population projection models, and stochastic simulations to address the following questions: (1) What are the sign, magnitude, and uncertainty of temporal correlations between vital rates? (2) How do specific pairwise correlations affect the year‐to‐year variability of population growth? (3) Does the net effect of all vital rate correlations increase or decrease year‐to‐year variability? (4) What is the net effect of vital rate correlations on the long‐term stochastic population growth rate (λs)? We found only four moderate to strong correlations, both positive and negative in sign, across all species and vital rate pairs; otherwise, correlations were generally weak in magnitude and variable in sign. The net effect of vital rate correlations ranged from a slight decrease to an increase in the year‐to‐year variability of population growth, with average changes in variance ranging from −1% to +22%. However, vital rate correlations caused virtually no change in the estimates of λs(mean effects ranging from −0.01% to +0.17%). Therefore, the proportional changes in the variance of population growth caused by demographic correlations were too small on an absolute scale to importantly affect population growth and viability. We conclude that, in our three focal populations and perhaps more generally, vital rate correlations have little effect on stochastic population dynamics. This may be good news for population ecologists, because estimating vital rate correlations and incorporating them into population models can be data intensive and technically challenging.

Controls on selenium distribution and mobilization in an irrigated shallow groundwater system underlain by Mancos Shale, Uncompahgre River Basin, Colorado, USA - John A. Thomas; Gabrielle Keith; Taylor J. Mills; M. Alisa Mast (Science of The Total Environment, 2016)
Groundwater Se concentrations ranged from below detection limit (<0.5μgL(-1), and primarily are controlled by high groundwater nitrate concentrations that maintain oxidizing conditions in the aquifer despite low dissolved oxygen concentrations, which indicate nitrate is largely derived from natural sources in the Mancos Shale and alluvial material.

Nesting aggregation as a determinant of brood parasitism in mason bees (Osmia spp.) - A. Groulx (2016)
Identifying forces that affect population dynamics can allow us to better understand the

The Douglas County Model in Western Colorado - Mark Noble; John A. Thomas (Journal of Library Administration, 2016)
In 2012 the Marmot Library Network implemented the Douglas County Library Model of ebook collection and circulation. By 2014 Marmot had loaded 838 ebooks purchased direct from publishers and independent authors to an Adobe Content Server, and made them available in an open source discovery layer based on VuFind. In late 2015, after 3 years of disappointing circulation and tedious acquisition processes, Marmot decided to move some of this collection to OverDrive and abandon the local ACS. This article reports lessons learned from that experiment.Column Editor’s Note This column focuses on formal collaboration and networking among libraries through consortia. It offers in-depth examinations of issues facing modern library consortia including (but not limited to) e-resource licensing, ebooks, next generation integrated library systems, shared print programs, shared digital repositories, governance, cooperative services and other relevant topics. Contributions are accepted for this column and must be submitted to George Machovec (george@coalliance.org). Contact the column editor for suggested topics, deadlines and formatting.

Pinedale glacial history of the upper Arkansas River valley - Ralph R. Shroba; Charles M. Russell; Jason P. Briner; Avriel D. Schweinsberg; Joseph M. Licciardi; Eric M. Leonard (Geological Society of America eBooks, 2016)
This field trip guidebook chapter outlines the glacial history of the upper Arkansas River valley, Colorado, and builds on a previous GSA field trip to the same area in 2010. The following will be presented: (1) new cosmogenic 10Be exposure ages of moraine boulders from the Pinedale and Bull Lake glaciations (Marine Isotope Stages 2 and 6, respectively) located adjacent to the Twin Lakes Reservoir, (2) numerical modeling of glaciers during the Pinedale glaciation in major tributaries draining into the upper Arkansas River, (3) discharge estimates for glacial-lake outburst floods in the upper Arkansas River valley, and (4) 10Be ages on flood boulders deposited downvalley from the moraine sequences. This research was stimulated by a new geologic map of the Granite 7.5’ quadrangle, in which the mapping of surficial deposits was revised based in part on the interpretation of newly acquired LiDAR data and field investigations. The new 10Be ages of the Pinedale terminal moraine at Twin Lakes average 21.8 ± 0.7 ka (n=14), which adds to nearby Pinedale terminal moraine ages of 23.6 ± 1.4 ka (n=5), 20.5 ± 0.2 ka (n=3) and 16.6 ± 1.0 ka, and downvalley outburst flood terraces that date to 20.9 ± 0.9 ka (n=4) and 19.0 ± 0.6 ka (n=4). This growing chronology leads to improved understanding of the controls and timing of glaciation in the western U.S., the modeling of glacial-lake outburst flooding, and the reconstruction of paleo-temperature through glacier modeling.

Geographic divergence in upper thermal limits across insect life stages: does behavior matter? - J. G. Kingsolver; H. J. MacLean; J. K. Higgins; L. B. Buckley (Oecologia, 2016)
The findings are inconsistent with the hypothesis that thermoregulatory behavior inhibits the geographic divergence of physiological traits in mobile stages, and suggest that sessile stages may evolve similar heat tolerances in different environments due to microclimatic variability or evolutionary constraints.

Effects of larval dietary restriction on body morphology, with implications for flight and life history - Carol L. Boggs (Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 2016)
AbstractMany morphological traits of adult insects show a plastic response to larval environmental conditions. Past studies of Lepidoptera, other than on irruptive species, focused on species with specific ecologies or life histories. These studies must be interpreted in the context of past selection associated with those specializations. Here, we examined the effects on adult morphology of quantitative dietary restriction in the late last instar of Speyeria mormonia Edwards (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Heliconiini). This univoltine species lives in open populations in montane meadows. Adults fed ad libitum as larvae on Viola sororia Willd. (Violaceae) were larger than those fed a restricted diet, for wet and dry body mass, dry mass of head, thorax, or abdomen, and forewing length. Females were larger than males for all but head mass. However, both males and individuals fed a restricted diet had a heavier head and thorax as a proportion of total mass, indicating conservation of visual or other sensory functions and flight. Females maintained a higher relative investment of mass in abdomens, indicating conservation of mass allocation to reproduction. Wing loading was greater in females and for individuals fed ad libitum. The sex*treatment interaction was also significant. The difference in wing loading between individuals fed ad libitum and those on a restricted diet were greater for females than for males. The allometric relationship between dry mass and wing area in both sexes was significantly less than isometric. Thus, allometry did not explain the effect of dietary restriction on wing loading. In contrast, wing aspect ratio was invariant. In combination with earlier studies, these results suggest that mass allocation in support of flight occurs generally under larval nutritional stress. Flight supports both reproduction and feeding. Our work thus highlights the need to include resource acquisition in studies of life history and fitness under nutritional stress.

Multi-decadal and multi-centennial variability in Colorado River streamflow - Reza Namdar Ghanbari; Sajad Ahmad Hamidi (International Journal of River Basin Management, 2016)
A 1240-year-long record of reconstructed annual flows of the Colorado River at Lees Ferry is analysed using singular spectrum analysis and multi-taper method of spectral analysis. Spectral analysis of the 100-year-long recent record of annual flows of Colorado River in the measured and reconstructed forms shows similar oscillations in high- and low-frequency bands. Therefore, the oscillatory components and trends extracted from the reconstructed data are a good representative of inter-annual, multi-decadal, and multi-centennial variability of natural flow in the river. In Colorado River the length of flow data is 1240 years and multi-centennial and multi-decadal oscillatory components can be extracted at a high confidence level. In this research we attempt to find whether the changes in streamflow in the twentieth century are due to an external cause such as climate change or whether they are part of the natural variability of flow observed in the past. The results suggest that there is only a part of the linear trend, caused by climate change or man-made effects, and an important part of that is due to climate variability which is believed to be totally natural. The same line of climate variability is still acting on our planet, and it may have gained new aspects due to the change in atmospheric composition and circulation as a result of anthropogenic effects. This may cause serious limitations to the water sustainability and water availability on the earth.

Seasonal variation in the secondary chemistry of foliar and reproductive tissues of Delphinium nuttallianum. - A. H. Slominski; J. A. Pfister; D. R. Gardner; Daniel Cook; Rebecca E. Irwin (Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 2016)

Selenium Biofortification and Phytoremediation Phytotechnologies: A Review - Elizabeth A. H. Pilon‐Smits; Michela Schiavon (Journal of Environmental Quality, 2016)
The element selenium (Se) is both essential and toxic for most life forms, with a narrow margin between deficiency and toxicity. Phytotechnologies using plants and their associated microbes can address both of these problems. To prevent Se toxicity due to excess environmental Se, plants may be used to phytoremediate Se from soil or water. To alleviate Se deficiency in humans or livestock, crops may be biofortified with Se. These two technologies may also be combined: Se‐enriched plant material from phytoremediation could be used as green fertilizer or as fortified food. Plants may also be used to “mine” Se from seleniferous soils. The efficiency of Se phytoremediation and biofortification may be further optimized. Research in the past decades has provided a wealth of knowledge regarding the mechanisms by which plants take up, metabolize, accumulate, and volatilize Se and the role plant‐associated microbes play in these processes. Furthermore, ecological studies have revealed important effects of plant Se on interactions with herbivores, detrivores, pollinators, neighboring vegetation, and the plant microbiome. All this knowledge can be exploited in phytotechnology programs to optimize plant Se accumulation, transformation, volatilization, and/or tolerance via plant breeding, genetic engineering, and tailored agronomic practices. Core Ideas Plants may be used to clean up excess selenium from the environment. Plants may be used to provide dietary selenium in selenium‐deficient areas. Plants may be used to mine Se from seleniferous soil.

Natal philopatry varies with larval condition in salamanders - Michael P. Moore; Howard Whiteman (Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 2016)
An important, long-lasting role of the natal environment on reproductive site selection is suggested, and the conditions experienced in early development can strongly affect reproductive behaviors across the life cycle, as well as differences in philopatry based on natal pond.

Assessing the sensitivity of foraging and vigilance to internal state and environmental variables in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris). - H. E. Chmura; T. W. Wey; Daniel T. Blumstein (Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 2016)

Observed forest sensitivity to climate implies large changes in 21st century North American forest growth - Margaret E. K. Evans; Benjamin Poulter; Valerie M. Trouet; Sydne Record; David Frank; Flurin Babst; Noah D. Charney; Brian J. Enquist (Ecology Letters, 2016)
AbstractPredicting long‐term trends in forest growth requires accurate characterisation of how the relationship between forest productivity and climatic stress varies across climatic regimes. Using a network of over two million tree‐ring observations spanning North America and a space‐for‐time substitution methodology, we forecast climate impacts on future forest growth. We explored differing scenarios of increased water‐use efficiency (WUE) due to CO2‐fertilisation, which we simulated as increased effective precipitation. In our forecasts: (1) climate change negatively impacted forest growth rates in the interior west and positively impacted forest growth along the western, southeastern and northeastern coasts; (2) shifting climate sensitivities offset positive effects of warming on high‐latitude forests, leaving no evidence for continued ‘boreal greening’; and (3) it took a 72% WUE enhancement to compensate for continentally averaged growth declines under RCP 8.5. Our results highlight the importance of locally adapted forest management strategies to handle regional differences in growth responses to climate change.

Bill Morphology and Niche Partitioning in Selasphorus platycercus - I. Chen (2016)
It has often been stated that the bill shape of hummingbirds is an example of ecological adaptation, as the morphology of their bills are strongly associated with flower nectar resources (Bleiweiss 1999). ​ Broadtailed hummingbirds (​Selasphorus platycercus) are considered the most characteristic hummingbird of the Rocky Mountain region (Grant & Grant 1968). At the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (RMBL) in Gothic, Colorado, the ecology and behavior of Broadtailed hummingbirds have been studied, but the reason behind why Broadtailed hummingbirds visit specific flowers has yet to be thoroughly examined. To explore this question, we caught a total of 198 Broadtailed hummingbirds in the summer of 2016 and measured their bill length, width, and curvature. We found that females have significantly longer, wider, and curvier bills. In addition, we examined the association between sex and flower visitation using pollen swabs as a proxy for flower visitation. A total of 13 species of pollen were found on bodies of hummingbirds. Through examining the visitation rate across these 13 species of pollen, we found potential for niche partitioning between sexes.

The fingerprints of global climate change on insect populations - Carol L. Boggs (Current Opinion in Insect Science, 2016)
Synthesizing papers from the last two years, generalizations about the fingerprints of climate change on insects' population dynamics and phenology are examined to show that knowledge of effects ofClimate change is still biased by organism and geographic region, and to some extent by scale of climate parameter.

Assessing best management practices for the remediation of selenium in surface water in an irrigated agricultural river valley: sampling, modeling, and multi-criteria decision analysis - Brent E. Heesemann; Bailey, Ryan T.; Hoag, Dana L.; Gates, Timothy K. (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2016)
The ecological impacts of selenium have been studied for decades and regulatory standards established in an effort to mitigate them. Agricultural activities in regions with high levels of alluvial selenium can lead to in-stream levels that far exceed regulatory limits. Agricultural best management practices (BMPs) are being considered to reduce in-stream selenium concentrations, but exploring the potential effectiveness of these BMPs can only be done after gaining an understanding of the in-stream processes that govern the speciation and transport of selenium in response to loading from irrigation return flows. This study uses extensive field data enhanced by numerical modeling to achieve this. In-stream water and sediment selenium samples, collected over a period of eight years in a region of Colorado’s Lower Arkansas River Valley, were analyzed. A sensitivity analysis (SA) was performed on a two part steady-state water quality / solute transport numerical model capable of simulating in-stream selenium processes. The combination of field data and SA was then used to calibrate an unsteady flow version of the model representative of the region to which it was applied. Dissolved and precipitated selenium species concentrations were accurately predicted by the calibrated model. Model simulations indicated that reduced fertilization is the BMP most effective at reducing in-stream SeO4 and NO3 concentrations out of the four BMPs examined. Reduced irrigation, land fallowing, and canal sealing indicated increases in in-stream SeO4 concentrations, likely caused by a concentration of SeO4 in the adjacent aquifer. Model results also indicated that the tributaries are impacted more by surface runoff as compared to lateral groundwater flows, while the opposite is true for the River. Although reasonable results were obtained from the model, further investigation into the computational processes and calibrated parameter values is required as part of future work. This study also examines the socio-economic feasibility of various BMPs, through the issuing survey to stakeholders in the study region and its evaluation using analytic hierarchy process multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). Reduced irrigation was determined to be the most feasible BMP based on the MCDA, with stakeholders showing a clear preference for economic concerns and placing a higher importance on salinity over SeO4 or NO3 concentrations. With model results indicating the effectiveness of various BMPs, and MCDA survey results providing insight into which of the BMPs are most likely to be accepted by stakeholders, it was possible to assess which BMPs are most appropriate for implementation in this study region. In considering both the results from the modeling study and the MCDA, it was determined that reduced fertilization is likely the single best BMP. To date there have been few if any studies utilizing both field data, numerical modeling, and MCDA to so comprehensively describe in-stream selenium processes and the future prospects for selenium remediation in an agricultural region in the western United States.

Declining recruitment of Gunnison Sage-Grouse highlights the need to monitor juvenile survival - Amy J. Davis; Michael L. Phillips; Paul F. Doherty (The Condor, 2016)
Recruitment of juveniles is an important vital rate that influences population growth and is fundamental to understanding trends in population size. Estimates of recruitment are often focused on the period just after hatching (prefledgling stage), which is typically the lowest survival period and often the most variable. Few studies examine true recruitment—survival from hatching to entering the breeding population—although this information is more relevant to understanding population trends. We studied the recruitment of Gunnison Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus minimus), a federally threatened species in the U.S., to examine the relative importance of chick and juvenile survival to recruitment patterns. We evaluated recruitment from 2005 to 2010 by combining separate estimates of chick survival (hatching to 30 days of age) and juvenile survival (31 days of age to the start of the first breeding season). To explain variation in these survival rates, we examined the effects of population, individual (i.e. age), and temporal (within-year and among-year differences) factors associated with recruitment of Gunnison Sage-Grouse. The factors that most explained juvenile survival rates were temporal (among-year trends and within-year seasonal effects). Chick survival rates varied by population, and daily chick survival increased with chick age. We found a slight negative trend in chick survival and a strong negative trend in juvenile survival from 2005 to 2010. The overall recruitment rate declined from 0.32 (± 0.09 SE) in 2005 to 0.04 (± 0.03 SE) in 2010. This decline coincided with a decline observed in population index data, which was not reflected in other demographic data. If survival had not been monitored past 30 days of age, estimates of recruitment would have remained relatively stable. This work highlights the importance of monitoring juvenile survival, as it may influence population dynamics.

EPISODIC UPLIFT OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS: EVIDENCE FROM U-PB DETRITAL ZIRCON GEOCHRONOLOGY AND LOW-TEMPERATURE THERMOCHRONOLOGY WITH A CHAPTER ON USING MOBILE TECHNOLOGY FOR GEOSCIENCE EDUCATION - Maria Magdalena Sandoval Donahue (UNM’s Digital Repository (University of New Mexico), 2016)
The timing and processes of development of the high topography and high relief of the southern Rocky Mountains of Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico has been controversial for over a hundred years. The Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks in the region formed a 3-4 km thick sub-horizontal stratigraphy that resided at elevations of zero to minus 4 km at the end of the Cretaceous. These units have been differentially uplifted/subsided and are presently at elevations of -10 to 4 km elevations, and have been eroded from above the core of many Precambrian basement cored uplifts exposed in > 4 km peaks. This study applies several different methodologies towards understanding the timing and relative importance of the events that uplifted and shaped the Rocky Mountains. These studies include incision studies (Chapter 1), detrital zircon analysis of Cenozoic fluvial deposits resting on the Rocky Mountain Erosion Surface (Chapter 2), and low temperature apatite fission track (AFT) and U-Th/He (AHe) low temperature thermochronology to look at differential cooling histories across the Rockies (Chapter 3). Chapter 4 investigates a project in which I designed and deployed a mobile device application for enhancing the traditional geoscience field education and research experience. Incision studies (Chapter 1) investigated the timing and rate of incision of the Black Canyon of the Gunnison by the Gunnison River. Canyon geometry is shaped by a headward-migrating knickzone presently located within the Painted Wall section of the Black Canyon. Average bedrock incision rates over the last 0.64 Ma surrounding the knickpoint vary from 150 m/Ma (downstream), to 400-550 m/Ma (within), to 90-95 m/Ma (upstream), suggesting it is a transient feature. Lava Creek B ash constrains strath terraces along a paleo-profile of the river. Within the paleo-Bostwick River tributary, we determine an incision rate of 400-550 m/Ma, reflecting incision at 2-3 times regional incision rates. We interpret this to be incision response to a headward-migrating wave of transient incision, potentially initiated by downstream base level fall during abandonment of Unaweep Canyon at about 1 Ma. Rate extrapolation indicates that the ~700 m depth of Black Canyon has been eroded since 1.3 – 1.75 Ma. The Black Canyon knickpoint overlies a strong gradient between low velocity mantle under the Colorado Rockies and higher velocity mantle of the Colorado Plateau. We interpret drainage reorganization and transient incision of both the Gunnison and upper Colorado River systems to be responding to mantle-driven epeirogenic uplift of the southern Rockies in the last 10 Ma. This study (Chapter 2) investigates the timing of erosion and deposition of several fragmented and little-understood conglomerate and sedimentary units, which are then used to better understand the timing of formation of the enigmatic Rocky Mountain Erosion Surface. Detrital zircon studies reclassify the Telluride Conglomerate and Blanco Basin Formation as being of Oligocene age, with maximum depositional ages of 30±3 Ma. This requires new understanding of the uplift of the San Juan Mountain regions, as we interpret these units to be the conglomeratic/sedimentary response to pre-volcanic epeirogenic doming and unroofing. This study also expands into New Mexico to investigate the depositional timing of the Paleocene-Eocene age McDermott, Galisteo and Baca Formations, and the Oligocene-age El Rito Formation and Ritito Conglomerate; each of these units rests upon the diachronous Rocky Mountain Erosion Surface and grades upward into volcanic deposits; these units are interpreted to be a sedimentary record of the multi-stage uplift of the Rocky Mountains. At each age, these units record the repeated process of doming and unroofing of basement rocks accompanying magmatism, deposition of thin gravel-sand sheets above regional unconformities, deposition of voluminous volcaniclastic aprons. This study suggests that relief has increased through time as the Rocky Mountain headwater regions of the fluvial systems that deposited progressively younger units of this study have gained in absolute elevation, while the ultimate base levels have remained the same or very similar. The third study (Chapter 3) moves to larger scales of both time and space in order to investigate uplift and exhumation histories on the regional scale. This study included a literature review and compilation of all published low-temperature thermochronology data (apatite fission track and apatite (U-Th)/He) (AHe) for the southern Rocky Mountain region and adds new apatite (U-Th)/He data on selected conglomeratic/sedimentary units to both add richness to the data base and to attempt to better constrain Oligocene burial histories. This study reinforces interpretations of a multi-stage uplift history to the Rocky Mountains by identifying regional episodes of rapid cooling that was driven by regional exhumation and differential uplift. Laramide cooling is investigated in compiled AFT and AHe data and age-elevation transects across the region. We notice spatial preservation of Laramide ages in Rocky Mountain thrust uplifts and elevation differences between the base of the Laramide-age AFT partial annealing zone, reinforcing models suggesting that Laramide cooling was driven by thrust uplifts that have not been reheated since uplift. New AHe data show that the Oligocene fluvial deposits were covered by ~1 km of volcaniclastic debris that likely extended westward onto the Colorado Plateau, refining understanding of the geometry and extent of the San Juan volcaniclastic apron. A delay of ~10 Ma between Oligocene magmatism and regional cooling through the 110-50ºC (AFT-AHe system) implies that post-Oligocene denudation was driven by erosional denudation following Oligocene surface uplift. Case studies highlight the semi-steady cooling of Oligocene plutons from ~30-15 Ma, followed by a potential ~20-10 Ma acceleration in cooling perhaps due to local faulting and/or uplift associated with Rio Grande rifting. Post-10 Ma cooling in areas not associated with the Rio Grande rift is compatible with models that incorporate regional integration of the Colorado River and Rio Grande to cause differential incision and localized rapid cooling. The fourth study highlights a project called Field Play. Our current human interaction with these landscapes is also of importance. The communication of science and education of Rockies both academic and public populations is of great importance as we have unprecedented access to information and rapidly evolving digital technologies. This project utilizes mobile technologies (smartphones, tablets) to augment the field experience. The goal of this project is to create a personalized, scalable and interactive educational learning environment which facilitates user exploration and access to robust geologic information. This project was featured in the New Mexico Geological Society's 2014 Fall Field Conference, as well as being used in my own teaching of introductory environmental science classes. This project is ongoing.

Frost sensitivity of leaves and flowers of subalpine plants is related to tissue type and phenology. - Justin A. Bain; Paul J. CaraDonna (Journal of Ecology, 2016)

Writing an Effective Response to a Manuscript Review - B. W. Taylor (Freshwater Science, 2016)
An author’s response to referees’ comments is a key component of the peer review process that affects whether a manuscript is accepted or rejected, the speed at which a manuscript moves through the review process, the workload of editors and referees, and the quality and clarity of published science. However, guidance on how to write a response to manuscript reviews is lacking from the instructions for authors of most journals and from science writing manuals. I offer some recommendations for authors, referees, and journals that can be implemented easily to improve the response to reviews and, thereby, enhance the publishing and reviewing process for authors, referees, and editors.

Who pays? Intra- versus inter-generational costs of reproduction - J. A. Moore; Caitlin P. Wells; D. H. Van Vuren (Ecosphere, 2016)
AbstractReproduction is thought to be costly for female mammals due to high energetic costs associated with pregnancy and lactation. Such costs of reproduction can be particularly high for younger females, who are less experienced and smaller than fully grown adults, and can manifest themselves within (intra‐individual or intra‐generational trade‐offs) or between (inter‐generational trade‐offs) generations. Using lifetime survival and reproductive histories of 416 female golden‐mantled ground squirrels (Callospermophilus lateralis) in Colorado, USA, we tested for the evidence of intra‐ and inter‐generational trade‐offs between age of first reproduction and fitness and its components. Females who waited to begin reproduction lived longer but they did not experience a greater number of lifetime reproductive events, did not produce larger litters, nor did they have higher lifetime reproductive success than those females who attained reproductive maturity earlier. However, delaying age of first reproduction substantially reduced individual fitness, quantified as the dominant eigenvalue of the population projection matrix, suggesting that fitness benefits of earlier maturity exceeded associated costs. Females born to mothers who delayed age of first reproduction had a higher probability of surviving to reproduce at least once during their lifetimes. Thus, in our study system, daughters pay for their mothers’ reproductive decisions, suggesting that some costs of reproduction can transcend a generation. Studies testing for costs of reproduction on survival or reproductive output within a short timeframe or those focusing within a generation may fail to detect inter‐generational trade‐offs.

Do bees show response diversity to environmental variables in a montane ecosystem? - S. K. Z. Cook (2016)
With climate change threatening a wide variety of organisms and ecosystems, expanding our knowledge of how they will respond is vital for making predictions and conservation decisions. One important group of organisms impacted by climate change is the wild bees, which provide an essential ecosystem service through their role as plant pollinators. Therefore, in an effort to understand better how bees are responding to changing weather patterns, we examined how the abundances of different species changed with response to environmental variables. Additionally, we looked at the relationship between response diversity and environmental variables and bee traits. We sampled bees at three groups of sites at the Rocky Mountain Biological Lab in Gothic, CO, using pan traps and netting, and collected environmental data on yearly wind, precipitation, and temperature from nearby weather stations. Using generalized linear models we found that different species exhibited significant responses to different environmental variables. Additionally, most of the species that responded to a variable responded in the same direction. We employed a fourth corner analysis to find a correlation between traits and responses, but it produced no significant results.

Effects of experimental warming on herbivory and fungal pathogen load on subalpine grasses - Ian W. McCowen (2016)
Rising global temperatures are predicted to alter community dynamics by shifting species ranges and altering biotic interactions. Herbivory is expected to increase with prolonged growing seasons and heightened animal metabolic rates; pathogen damage may increase as well. Thus, we investigated whether damage by herbivores and pathogens on subalpine grass species would increase with warming. We compared percentage aboveground herbivory and foliar pathogen loads on three grass species (Festuca thurberi, Poa pratensis, and Achnatherum lettermanii) using a long-term experimental warming treatment in which plots subjected to experimental warming by infrared heaters alternated with ambient control plots. Within our warming plots there was an increase in the magnitude of herbivory for two of the three subalpine grass species observed. This increase in herbivory suggests that with global warming the damage from insects on grasses will can increase, but may be species specific.

Carbon Dioxide Fluxes in Alpine and Subalpine Soils of the East River Watershed - Maeve McCormick (2016)

Assessment of resource changes in backcountry campsites from 1989-1996 in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado - Victoria Grace Steele (Montana State University ScholarWorks (Montana State University), 2015)
One of the major contributing factors affecting wilderness resources is camping.The objectives of this study were to describe the resource changes that occur in backcountry campsites in Rocky Mountain National Park as measured by campsite area and campsite score from the Backcountry Campsite Impact Assessment and Monitoring System (BCIAMS).Six categories, with several sub-categories each, were tested for change in area and total BCIAMS score.Categories were relative aspect, campfire, campsite type, distance from the trailhead, elevation and use.Each sub-category was analyzed independently and for each test, missing area measurements, or total scores of zero were dropped from that analysis.This produced different numbers of campsites in each test.Most sites increased in area over time, but most sites decreased in total score over time.Sites that increased significantly in area over time were: northeast, southeast, northwest, no fire, campfire, individual, any distance from the trailhead, low or moderate in elevation and heavily used.Sites that increased significantly in total score over time were southwest and no fires.Stock sites decreased significantly over time in total score.Use was positively correlated to an increase in campsite area and total score.Group and group/stock sites had larger areas than all other site types.Stock sites had larger areas than individual sites.Group/stock sites had higher total scores than all other site types.Campsites far from the trailhead had larger areas than sites close to the trailhead.Moderate elevation sites had higher total scores than low elevation sites.A model of the life cycle of a campsite was adapted from Cole (1994).The decrease in BCIAMS scores, along with yearly campsite improvements has shown that impacts to campsites be reversed and allow the campsite to reach a long term steady state.This study demonstrated the validity of assessing, monitoring and managing campsites over time.Managing campsites increases their aesthetic quality, concentrates use, and can reverse the rate of degradation.With continued management of campsites, our natural areas can be preserved for future generations.

First report of a giant neosuchian (Crocodyliformes) in the Williams Fork Formation (Upper Cretaceous: Campanian) of Colorado (Cretaceous Research, 2015)

Social and ecological aspects of conservation development as a strategy for biodiversity conservation on private lands - Cooper M. Farr; Bailey, Larissa L.; Reed, Sarah E.; Seidl, Andrew F.; Pejchar, Liba (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Private lands harbor a large proportion of the world’s biodiversity, and they are also facing widespread threats from extractive land uses, anthropogenic disturbances, and land conversion for residential and commercial development. With decreased funding and support for public land acquisition and management, developing effective and economically viable tools for conservation on private lands is increasingly important. One method is conservation development (CD), an alternative to residential sprawl designed to decrease negative environmental impacts by clustering houses in a small portion of a property while preserving the remaining land as protected open space. Although CD makes up approximately one-fourth of all of the private lands conserved in the U.S., little research has assessed where and why this tool is implemented, long-term management of CD open space, or specific positive or negative effects on wildlife communities. I conducted a thorough investigation of CD as a private land conservation strategy using a variety of methods. In chapter one, I investigated CD’s ability to successfully protect animal populations by examining bird and mammal occurrence in 14 CD subdivisions (range: 14-432 ha) in Northern Colorado, USA. Using point count and camera trap data in an occupancy modeling framework, I evaluated the relative importance of 9 subdivision design factors (e.g. housing density, proportion of CD preserved, total area of the protected space) and 14 stewardship factors (e.g. mowing, livestock, native vegetation cover) in influencing the richness of human-sensitive and human-adapted species and probability of use by 16 birds and 6 mammals. I found that bird and mammal species richness and habitat use were associated predominantly with design characteristics that maximize the natural or undisturbed land area both within and surrounding the development (e.g., proportion of CD preserved, total area of the protected space, proportion of natural land cover types at large scales). Habitat use by birds was frequently influenced by local habitat composition and quality, and several bird and mammal species had decreased habitat use in areas with increased localized disturbances such as the presence of humans and mowing in the open space. In chapter two, I used Social Network Analysis (SNA) to examine participation of individuals and companies (actors) in CD implementation. Using data gathered from public county records, I quantified actor participation in CD subdivisions in six counties in Colorado, USA. I examined and compared the patterns of actor participation in CDs among counties and identified the individuals and organizations that were most consistently associated with the implementation of CDs within each county. I found that social networks of actor participation in CD differed among counties, and network characteristics varied depending on the population of the county, the total number of CDs in the county, and the total number of actors in the network. My results also showed that the most highly connected actors that were consistently involved in the implementation of many CDs were biological and geological consultants, surveyors, engineers, and planners. In chapter three, I formally assessed the content of management plans and conservation easements for existing CD subdivisions in six Colorado counties. I quantified the proportion of CDs with management documents. I also examined the land uses and stewardship activities that were prohibited, permitted, encouraged or required in the protected open space of existing CDs. I determined which activities and practices were most and least frequently addressed in these documents in order to prioritize strategies to improve CD as an effective private land conservation tool. More than two-thirds (69%) of 302 CDs had documents on file that included guidelines and regulations for the long-term stewardship of the protected land. However, CD management documents rarely mentioned issues relating to wildlife habitat improvement, species-specific monitoring and management, homeowner education, and access to the open space by domestic pets. This research identifies several key design and stewardship factors that influence the conservation value of CD open space for birds and mammals, and the key actors and actor types in CD implementation. These findings can inform the strategies used to communicate recommendations to improve CD effectiveness at achieving conservation objectives. This research also examines the current strengths and weaknesses in the documents that guide stewardship of CD subdivisions. Using these findings, I made recommendations for critical guidelines and regulation that should be included in management documents to attain conservation benefits. By incorporating characteristics that promote the persistence of sensitive animal species on private lands, CDs have strong potential to balance the housing needs of growing human populations with the preservation of diverse and abundant animal communities. With direct application to improving the way that CDs are designed, developed and managed, my findings could enhance the potential of CD to sustain native biodiversity on private lands.

Timing is everything: Phenological change and the implications for plants, pollinators and their interactions. - Zachariah J. Gezon (2015)

Impacts of climate change on the formation and stability of late Quaternary sand sheets and falling dunes, Black Mesa region, southern Colorado Plateau, USA - Leslie D. McFadden; Shannon A. Mahan; Amy L. Ellwein (Quaternary International, 2015)

Skill Assessment of Water Supply Outlooks in the Colorado River Basin - Brent Harrison; Roger Bales (Hydrology, 2015)
Water-supply outlooks that predict the April through July (snowmelt) runoff and assist in estimating the total water-year runoff, are very important to users that rely on the major contributing watersheds of the Colorado River. This study reviewed the skill level of April through July forecasts at 28 forecast points within the Colorado River basin. All the forecasts were made after 1950, with considerable variation in time period covered. Evaluations of the forecasts were made using summary measures, correlation measures and categorical measures. The summary measure, a skill score for mean absolute error, indicated a steady increase in forecast skill through the forecast season of January to May. The width of the distribution for each monthly forecast over the 28 locations remained similar through the forecast season. The Nash-Sutcliffe score, a correlation measure, showed similar results, with the Nash-Sutcliffe median showing an increase from 0.4 to 0.8 during the forecast season. The categorical measures used a three-section partition of the April through July runoff. The Probability of Detection for low and high flows showed an increase in skill from approx. 0.4 to 0.8 during the forecast season. The same score for mid-flow years showed limited increase in skill. The low False Alarm Rate illustrated the under forecast of high-flow years. The Bias of the mid-runoff forecasts indicated over forecast early in the forecast season (January to March), with lower Bias later in the forecast season (April and May), ending the forecast season at 1.0, indicating no Bias. Forecasts for both low and high runoff were under forecast early in the season with a Bias near 0.5, improving to nearly 1.0 by the end of the forecast season. The Hit Rate measure illustrated the difficulty of mid-flow forecasts, starting at 0.5 in January and increasing to 0.75 in May due to the forecasting assumption of normal climatology for the remaining forecast period. There was no relationship between basin elevation and forecast skill, reflecting the snow vs. rain dominance in all basins.

Empowering collaborative forest restoration with locally relevant ecological research - Binkley, Daniel; Reid, Robin S.; Battaglia, Mike A.; Megan Matonis; Steingraeber, David A. (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Collaborative forest restoration can reduce conflicts over natural resource management and improve ecosystem function after decades of degradation. Scientific evidence helps collaborative groups avoid undesirable outcomes as they define goals, assess current conditions, design restoration treatments, and monitor change over time. Ecological research cannot settle value disputes inherent to collaborative dialogue, but discussions are enriched by locally relevant information on pressing natural resource issues. I worked closely with the Uncompahgre Partnership, a collaborative group of managers, stakeholders, and researchers in southwestern Colorado, to develop research questions, gather data, and interpret findings in the context of forest restoration. Specifically, my dissertation (1) explored ways to better align collaborative goals with ecological realities of dynamic and unpredictable ecosystems; (2) defined undesirable conditions for fire behavior based on modeling output, published literature, and collaborative discussions about values at risk; (3) assessed the degree to which restoration treatments are moving forests away from undesirable conditions (e.g., homogenous and dense forests with scarce open habitat for grasses, forbs, and shrubs); and (4) looked at the validity of rapid assessment approaches for estimating natural range of variability in frequent-fire forests. The current practice of defining desired future conditions pulls managers and stakeholders into command-and-control thinking and causes them to dream away resource tradeoffs and the unpredictability of forest change. Instead, moving ecosystems away from undesirable states and reducing unacceptable risk might allow for diverse and socially acceptable conditions across forested landscapes. The concept of undesirable conditions helped the Uncompahgre Partnership come to agreement over types of fire behavior and stand conditions they wanted to avoid through management. I determined that restoration treatments on the Uncompahgre Plateau are generally moving forests away from undesirably dense conditions that were uncommon prior to Euro-American settlement. My assessment was largely based on data collected during collaborative workdays with the Uncompahgre Partnership. Our rapid assessment approach for estimating historical forest structure took a quarter of the time required for scientifically rigorous stand reconstructions, and it provided reasonably accurate estimates of tree density and spatial patterns. Our data on historical stand structure revealed that fragmentation and loss of open grass-forb-shrub habitat between tree groups were the most dramatic and undesirable changes occurring in frequent-fire forests over the past century. Many restoration treatments are focused on restoring spatial patterns in tree groups, with little attention to spatial patterns in open grass-forb-shrub habitat. I determined that the juxtaposition of tree groups with grass-forb-shrub habitat >6 m from overstory trees is important for restoring understory cover, diversity, and composition. Focusing on undesirable conditions in stands, such as high tree density and scarcity of grass-forb-shrub habitat, can help collaborative groups find common ground and design treatments that restore structure, composition, and processes in forest ecosystems.

Bee- to bird-pollination shifts in Penstemon: effects of floral-lip removal and corolla constriction on bumble bee preference - M. C. Castellanos; J. L. Zung; James D. Thomson; Jessica R.K. Forrest (Evolutionary Ecology, 2015)

The effects of primary and secondary nectar robbing of Ipomopsis aggregata on hummingbird visitation. - Cherie J. Nelson (2015)
Nectar robbers feed on the nectar obtained through holes that have been chewed into the flower. This behavior often leads to a reduction in effective pollination because nectar robbers avoid floral reproductive structures (Inouye 1980). Primary nectar robbers puncture the flower, creating an opening in the petal from which to remove nectar, while secondary nectar robbers use the holes created by primary robbers. Studies have shown that nectar robbing can negatively affect plant reproduction by deterring legitimate pollinators (Irwin et al. 2010). Furthermore, data have shown that secondary nectar robbing can result in increased reproduction costs beyond that caused by primary robbing alone (Richman et al. in prep). One reason this might be is that legitimate pollinators are further deterred as plants incur more nectar robbing. I have tested this hypothesis by collecting 30 Ipomopsis aggregata plants and subjecting them to varying levels of nectar robbing: none, primary robbing only, and secondary robbing. After applying treatments I arranged them in a field and observed hummingbird visitations, recording the sex and species of the bird as well as the specific plants visited and the number of flowers probed per plant. The data show that hummingbirds probed more flowers per plant of the control group than they did of either of the nectar robbed groups and they probed more flowers per plant of the primary group than they did of the secondary group. This suggests that hummingbirds will not stay at a plant as long if it has a smaller nectar reward.

Interspecific competition between a non-native metal-hyperaccumulating plant (Noccaea caerulescens, Brassicaceae) and a native congener across a soil-metal gradient - J. P. Che-Castaldo; David W. Inouye (Australian Journal of Botany, 2015)
Adaptive traits are hypothesised to incur fitness trade-offs, and a classical example is metal-tolerant plants that exhibit reduced competitive ability when grown on low-metal substrates. In the present study, we examined whether metal-hyperaccumulating plants exhibit a similar trade-off, by assessing competition across a soil-metal gradient in the context of phytoremediation. We studied the cadmium- and zinc-hyperaccumulator Noccaea caerulescens (J. Presl & C. Presl) F.K. Mey., which has been introduced to potential remediation sites contaminated with those metals, and the nickel- and zinc-hyperaccumulator Noccaea fendleri subsp. glauca (A. Nelson) Al-Shehbaz & M. Koch, which is native to our study sites. We performed a greenhouse experiment with a response-surface design to quantify their competitive interactions on higher- and lower-metal substrates from each of three mine sites. Overall competitive effects between the species were weak, but we did find evidence of competition on the substrates that supported the highest rates of plant growth and reproduction. Abiotic factors were more limiting than competitive interactions for both species, and both performed better on substrates containing higher zinc, lower cadmium and lower copper concentrations. A complementary field trial supported these findings. Our results also showed that substrates outside of contaminated mine tailings can still contain sufficiently high zinc concentrations to support N. caerulescens, suggesting that the use of these plants for phytoremediation should be monitored to prevent the unintentional establishment of non-native species.

The evolutionary ecology of ultraviolet floral pigmentation - M. H. Koski (2015)

Barriers to Gene Flow across a Light Gradient in Cardamine cordifolia. - S. Faries (2015)
Ecotypic variation can be driven by a disproportionate balance between selective pressures and gene flow. If the strength of selection is weak relative to the level of gene flow, genetic variation will likely be homogenized among populations. However, in the absence or severe limitation of gene flow, divergent selection pressures are more likely to result in adaptive evolution to local environmental conditions. Both biotic and abiotic factors can limit gene flow, and these barriers can highly influence the exhibited traits in plants along a habitat gradient. At the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, a native mustard Cardamine cordifolia has exhibited habitat specific differentiation across a light quality gradient. Flowering phenology was examined in Cardamine cordifolia in open sun, intermediate shade and deep shade habitats to determine if a separation of first, peak and last flowering time within the different environments was a mechanism for pre-zygotic isolation. I hypothesized that C. cordifolia found in open sun habitats will have an earlier flowering phenology in comparison to C. cordifolia found in deep shade habitats. Using two sites, a highly significant difference in first, peak and last flowering time was observed in the open sun and deep shade habitats. This gap in flowering phenology demonstrates a limited ability for open sun and deep shade plants to outcross in the short alpine growing season. Without gene flow the extremes of the light gradient are able to adapt locally in response to unique, divergent selective pressures.

A mutualistic endophyte alters the niche dimensions of its host plant - Y. Y. Chung; N. D. Charlton; C. L. Debban; L. B. Ranelli; W. Q. Hendricks; T. Pendergast; C. A. Young; Melanie R Kazenel; Jennifer A. Rudgers (AoB Plants, 2015)
Mutualisms can play important roles in influencing species coexistence and determining community composition. However, few studies have tested whether such interactions can affect species distributions by altering the niches of partner species. In subalpine meadows of the Rocky Mountains, USA, we explored whether the presence of a fungal endophyte (genus Epichloë) may shift the niche of its partner plant, marsh bluegrass (Poa leptocoma) relative to a closely related but endophyte-free grass species, nodding bluegrass (Poa reflexa). Using observations and a 3-year field experiment, we tested two questions: (i) Do P. leptocoma and P. reflexa occupy different ecological niches? and (ii) Does endophyte presence affect the relative fitness of P. leptocoma versus P. reflexa in the putative niches of these grass species? The two species were less likely to co-occur than expected by chance. Specifically, P. leptocoma grew closer to water sources and in wetter soils than P. reflexa, and also had higher root colonization by mycorrhizal fungi. Endophyte-symbiotic P. leptocoma seeds germinated with greater frequency in P. leptocoma niches relative to P. reflexa niches, whereas neither endophyte-free (experimentally removed) P. leptocoma seeds nor P. reflexa seeds showed differential germination between the two niche types. Thus, endophyte presence constrained the germination and early survival of host plants to microsites occupied by P. leptocoma. However, endophyte-symbiotic P. leptocoma ultimately showed greater growth than endophyte-free plants across all microsites, indicating a net benefit of the symbiosis at this life history stage. Differential effects of endophyte symbiosis on different host life history stages may thus contribute to niche partitioning between the two congeneric plant species. Our study therefore identifies a symbiotic relationship as a potential mechanism facilitating the coexistence of two species, suggesting that symbiont effects on host niche may have community-level consequences.

Effects of Bombus Pollinator Removal on Fly Foraging Behavior. - Z. Pouncey (2015)
Native Bombus species are in decline in the United States. Since pollinators are such integral species in a system, the extinction of a single Bombus species could potentially have far reaching consequences on crop production and plant reproduction necessary for species diversity ad agriculture. However, there are studies to suggest that other pollinators would fill the niche of the most abundant Bombus in a system should that Bombus become extinct (Memmott et al. 2004). This study examines how Diptera fly pollinators in a system react to the removal of a single Bombus species. I hypothesized that Diperta pollinators will expand their foraging range in the absence of the most abundant Bombus species. By comparing fly behavior in controlled and manipulated (experimental species removal) states, I observed a change in fly foraging that was supported by the data analysis. This study confirmed my hypothesis showing a correlation between fly foraging and the removal of the most abundant Bombus species.

Survival of Gunnison sage‐grouse Centrocercus minimus in Colorado, USA - Michael L. Phillips; Paul F. Doherty; Amy J. Davis (Journal of Avian Biology, 2015)
Gunnison sage‐grouse Centrocercus minimus has declined from their historic range and recent monitoring has provided evidence that some populations are continuing to decline. The evaluation of long‐term, population‐specific survival rates is important to assess population stability, and is necessary for conservation of this species of concern. We evaluated adult and yearling survival in two dynamically different populations of Gunnison sage‐grouse (a relatively large, more stable population and a small, declining population). Our goal was to examine the relationship between annual survival and population, and test hypotheses with regards to temporal effects (across years and within year) and individual effects (sex and age). We also evaluated the effects of snow depth on sage‐grouse survival. We tracked 214 radiomarked birds in the large population from 2005–2010 and 25 birds in the small population from 2007–2010. We found no evidence for a difference in survival between yearlings and adults nor did we find an influence of snow depth on survival. Males had the lowest survival during the lekking season (March–April); females had lower survival during the nesting and chick rearing season (May–July) and late‐summer and fall (August–October). The annual survival rate was 0.61 (SE 0.06) for females and 0.39 (SE 0.08) for males. Survival was constant across years and between the populations suggesting observed population changes during this time period are not a result of changes in adult survival.

Effects of Gunnison Sage-Grouse habitat treatment efforts on associated avifauna and vegetation structure - Steve Boyle; Paul M. Lukacs; Amy Seglund (Avian Conservation and Ecology, 2015)
Lukacs, P. M., A. Seglund, and S. Boyle. 2015. Effects of Gunnison Sage-Grouse habitat treatment efforts on associated avifauna and vegetation structure. Avian Conservation and Ecology 10(2):7.http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ACE-00799-100207

Pattern and variation of the time budget of yellow-bellied marmots - C. M. Salsbury; Kenneth B. Armitage (Ethology, Ecology and Evolution, 2015)
We measured the time budgets of yellow-bellied marmots to determine what constraints limited energy acquisition and whether trade-offs occurred among the behaviors. Therefore, we focus on which behaviors form a consistent pattern among marmot populations, the degree of phenotypic plasticity in the time allocated to the behaviors, and the biotic and abiotic factors associated with variations in time allocations. Time budgets for 14 behaviors were recorded at six sites in the Upper East River Valley in western Colorado over two active seasons. Data were analyzed for cohort, day-period and season-period, and for interactions among the main effects. Sitting and vigilance, accounting for 63% of aboveground activity, are strongly associated with wariness, the need for marmots to monitor the presence of conspecific and predatory intruders. Foraging accounts for 15% of daily activity. These three activities are the major contributors to time budgets at all sites. Radiation, acting as a thermal constraint, greatly reduces activity during mid-day when radiation is intense. Sitting is the only major behavior to increase at mid-day, presumably to maintain wariness. Time allocations change little over the season-periods and foraging does not significantly increase in the weeks prior to hibernation. Young generally are less vigilant, often spend less time sitting and forage less than adults, but generally allocate more minutes to investigation. Time is a seasonal but not a daily constraint. Thermal constraints reduce overall daily activity, and digestive constraints limit foraging time. Sitting provides a reservoir of time that can be drawn upon when needed for other behaviors such that costly trade-offs are not evident. Time allocations for an activity may differ among sites; these differences and most significant differences, whether for cohort, day-period or season-period, are associated with the behaviors of a particular age/sex group, such as high time allocation to investigation by immigrant males.

Paleoecology of Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, Utah: Human impacts on landscape and implications for resource management on the southern Colorado Plateau - Matthew K. Zweifel; Robert M. D'Andrea; Kenneth L. Cole; Richard J. Anderson (Quaternary International, 2015)

Nest Success of Gunnison Sage-Grouse in Colorado, USA - Paul F. Doherty; Michael L. Phillips; Amy J. Davis (PLOS ONE, 2015)
Gunnison Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus minimus) is a species of concern for which little demographic information exists. To help fill this information gap, we investigated factors affecting nest success in two populations of Gunnison Sage-Grouse. We assessed the relative effects of (1) vegetation characteristics (e.g., shrub height, shrub cover, grass cover, and grass height), (2) temporal factors (e.g., year, timing of incubation initiation, and nest age), (3) precipitation, and (4) age of the nesting female (yearling or adult) on nest success rates. We found 177 nests in the Gunnison Basin population (that contains 85-90% of the species) from 2005-2010 and 20 nests in the San Miguel population (that contains < 10% of the species) from 2007-2010. Temporal factors had the greatest impact on nest success compared to vegetation characteristics, precipitation, and female age. Nest success varied considerably among years ranging from 4.0%-60.2% in Gunnison Basin and from 12.9%- 51.9% in San Miguel. Nests that were initiated earlier in the breeding season had higher nest success (at least one egg hatches). Daily nest survival rates decreased during the course of incubation. None of the vegetation characteristics we examined were strongly related to nest success.

The ecology of co-infection in the phyllosphere: unraveling the interactions between microbes, insect herbivores, and the host plants they share. - Parris T Humphrey (2015)

Causes and consequences of plant responses to environmental change over physiological, ecological, and evolutionary time. - L. L. Sloat (2015)

Lack of sex-specific differences in mycorrhizal associations and response to herbivory in the gynodioecious herb, Polemonium foliosissimum - J. B. Gonzalez; G. L. Clarke; Alison K. Brody (Plant Ecology, 2015)

Plasticity in functional traits in the context of climate change: A case study of the subalpine forb Boechera stricta (Brassicaceae) - Zachariah J. Gezon (Global Change Biology, 2015)
Environmental variation often induces shifts in functional traits, yet we know little about whether plasticity will reduce extinction risks under climate change. As climate change proceeds, phenotypic plasticity could enable species with limited dispersal capacity to persist in situ, and migrating populations of other species to establish in new sites at higher elevations or latitudes. Alternatively, climate change could induce maladaptive plasticity, reducing fitness, and potentially stalling adaptation and migration. Here, we quantified plasticity in life history, foliar morphology, and ecophysiology in Boechera stricta (Brassicaceae), a perennial forb native to the Rocky Mountains. In this region, warming winters are reducing snowpack and warming springs are advancing the timing of snow melt. We hypothe- sized that traits that were historically advantageous in hot and dry, low-elevation locations will be favored at higher elevation sites due to climate change. To test this hypothesis, we quantified trait variation in natural populations across an elevational gradient. We then estimated plasticity and genetic variation in common gardens at two eleva- tions. Finally, we tested whether climatic manipulations induce plasticity, with the prediction that plants exposed to early snow removal would resemble individuals from lower elevation populations. In natural populations, foliar morphology and ecophysiology varied with elevation in the predicted directions. In the common gardens, trait plas- ticity was generally concordant with phenotypic clines from the natural populations. Experimental snow removal advanced flowering phenology by 7 days, which is similar in magnitude to flowering time shifts over 2–3 decades of climate change. Therefore, snow manipulations in this system can be used to predict eco-evolutionary responses to global change. Snow removal also altered foliar morphology, but in unexpected ways. Extensive plasticity could buf- fer against immediate fitness declines due to changing climates.

Scale collapse and the emergence of the power law species–area relationship - M. Wilber; J. Kitzes; John Harte (Global Ecology and Biogeography, 2015)
AbstractAimThe recently proposed maximum entropy theory of ecology predicts that all nested species–area relationships (SARs) will collapse to a single, universal curve that exhibits a decreasing log–log slope with increasing scale, suggesting that the power law form of the SAR is invalid at any scale. In this analysis we test the generality of this scale collapse behaviour and determine the scale at which approximate power law behaviour of the SAR is predicted to occur.LocationGlobal.MethodsWe use common SAR models to recursively upscale SARs to (1) look for scale collapse of SARs built from different community assumptions and (2) identify the scale at which approximate power law SARs are recovered. We explore four SAR models in which species abundance distributions and the spatial aggregation of species vary within and across scales according to observed patterns.ResultsWe show that scale collapse is a property of nested SARs, not of maximum entropy theory, and that many types of SARs can exhibit scale‐collapsed curves that follow the general pattern of empirical communities. Moreover, we use the scale‐collapsed curves to show that power law behaviour is not predicted to occur at the scale of most SAR studies and that variation in species spatial aggregation or the scaling of species abundance distributions are needed to produce power law SARs at realistic scales.Main conclusionsOur findings show that power law behaviour of nested SARs is rare and that communities displaying approximate power law SARs may exhibit predictable characteristics within and across scale, such as interspecific variation in aggregation. Our findings regarding the general rarity of power law behaviour suggests that careful consideration of the curvature of a SAR and the scale of an ecological community are necessary before using power law SARs to predict biodiversity across scales.

The effect of the foresummer drought on carbon exchange in subalpine meadows - C. A. Lamanna; L. L. Sloat; Brian J. Enquist; Amanda Henderson (Ecosystems, 2015)
Climate in subalpine meadows of the Rocky growing season drought conditions. Manipulating Mountains can be characterized by an early (fore- the strength of the foresummer drought by watering summer) drought that occurs after snowmelt (May) revealed that the timing of growing season pre- and lasts until the start of the summer monsoon cipitation is more important than the total amount season (July). Climate change models predict an for determining cumulative NEP. The strength of the increase in the length and severity of this dry period foresummer drought did not significantly impact due to earlier snowmelt dates, rising air tem- ecosystem respiration rates, but plants that experi- peratures, and shifts in the start and/or intensity of enced a strong foresummer drought exhibited more the North American monsoon. However, it is un- water stress, and lower instantaneous rates of NEP, known how changes in the severity of this early even during the rainy season. Our results highlight season dry period will affect ecosystem carbon ex- the central role of the foresummer drought in de- change. To address the importance of early season termining rates of carbon exchange throughout the drought, we combined a watering manipulation growing season, and the potential for an increas- with 11 years of ecosystem carbon exchange data ingly negative balance of carbon in subalpine across an elevational gradient at the Rocky Moun- meadows under future climate change. tain Biological Laboratory in Gothic, Colorado. Long-term trends reveal that earlier snowmelt dates Key words: climate change; sualpine; NEP; fore- lead to a decrease in net ecosystem productivity summer drought; elevation gradient; watering (NEP), in part because of the positive effect on early manipulation.

Captive‐rearing of Gunnison sage‐grouse from egg collection to adulthood to foster proactive conservation and recovery of a conservation‐reliant species - Lief A. Wiechman (Zoo Biology, 2015)
Gunnison sage‐grouse (Centrocercus minimus) are distributed across southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah, United States. Their distribution has decreased over the past century and the species has been listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Reduced genetic diversity, small population size, and isolation may affect Gunnison sage‐grouse population persistence. Population augmentation can be used to counteract or mitigate these issues, but traditional translocation efforts have yielded mixed, and mostly unsuccessful, results. Captive‐rearing is a viable, although much debated, conservation approach to bolster wild conservation‐reliant species. Although there have been captive‐rearing efforts with greater sage‐grouse (C. urophasianus), to date, no information exists about captive‐rearing methods for Gunnison sage‐grouse. Therefore, we investigated techniques for egg collection, artificial incubation, hatch, and captive‐rearing of chicks, juveniles, subadults, and adults for Gunnison sage‐grouse. In 2009 we established a captive flock that produced viable eggs. From 2009–2011, we collected and artificially incubated 206 Gunnison sage‐grouse eggs from 23 wild and 14 captive females. Our hatchability was 90%. Wild‐produced eggs were heavier than captive‐produced eggs and lost mass similarly during incubation. We produced 148 chicks in captivity and fed them a variety of food sources (e.g. invertebrates to commercial chow). Bacterial infections were the primary cause of chick mortality, but we successfully reduced the overall mortality rate during the course of our study. Conservationists and managers should consider the utility in developing a captive‐rearing program or creating a captive population as part of a proactive conservation effort for the conservation‐reliant Gunnison sage‐grouse. Zoo Biol. 34:438–452, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

An ephemeral meandering river system: Sediment dispersal processes in the Río Colorado, Southern Altiplano Plateau, Bolivia - Marinus E. Donselaar; Menno R. Bloemsma; Jiaguang Li; Maarten A. Prins; Gert Jan Weltje; Stefan M. Luthi (Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 2015)
© 2014 Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, Germany. The Río Colorado meandering river system feeds the Salar de Uyuni, the World's largest salt pan in the southern Altiplano plateau (Bolivia). It is characterized by ephemerality due to the high aridity of the region, and a downstream decrease of river bankfull width and depth in the river terminus. Dryland meandering river systems in high-Altitude regions have rarely been reported. We investigated the active processes in this system from the alluvial fan to the lower coastal plain. On-site surveys combined with high-precision GPS and high-resolution satellite imagery show that Río Colorado area is typified by generally fine sediment and a low gradient in the coastal plain. In the alluvial fan, where channel meandering is weak but still recognizable, the deposits are characterized by fining-upward sequences with gravelprone sediments at the bottom, paleosols in the middle and clay-dominated sediments at the top. In the coastal plain the channel deposits consist of coarse to fine sand with sparse basal gravel, while the river banks and thus much of the floodplain consist of clay and silt in the upper coastal plain and very fine sand, silt and clay with salt deposits in the lower coastal plain. Grain-size distribution analysis show a linear decrease in bed load sediments downstream and a concurrent increase in suspended load sediments. These longitudinal variations in the proportions of sediment load are found to be consistent with changes in the topographic slope. The river gradient shows six intervals with downstream decreasing but internally quite constant slopes and sediment composition. Characteristic geomorphologic features are found to be head-cutting channels, chute channels, avulsions and crevasse splays. They illustrate the processes of erosion and deposition in this low-gradient river system and help understand sediment dispersal and their preservation potentials.

Effects of increased flight on the energetics and life history of the butterfly Speyeria mormonia - Carol L. Boggs (PLoS One, 2015)
Movement uses resources that may otherwise be allocated to somatic maintenance or reproduction. How does increased energy expenditure affect resource allocation? Using the butterfly Speyeria mormonia, we tested whether experimentally increased flight affects fecundity, lifespan or flight capacity. We measured body mass (storage), resting metabolic rate and lifespan (repair and maintenance), flight metabolic rate (flight capacity), egg number and composition (reproduction), and food intake across the adult lifespan. The flight treatment did not affect body mass or lifespan. Food intake increased sufficiently to offset the increased energy expenditure. Total egg number did not change, but flown females had higher early-life fecundity and higher egg dry mass than control females. Egg dry mass decreased with age in both treatments. Egg protein, triglyceride or glycogen content did not change with flight or age, but some components tracked egg dry mass. Flight elevated resting metabolic rate, indicating increased maintenance costs. Flight metabolism decreased with age, with a steeper slope for flown females. This may reflect accelerated metabolic senescence from detrimental effects of flight. These effects of a drawdown of nutrients via flight contrast with studies restricting adult nutrient input. There, fecundity was reduced, but flight capacity and lifespan were unchanged. The current study showed that when food resources were abundant, wing-monomorphic butterflies living in a continuous meadow landscape resisted flight-induced stress, exhibiting no evidence of a flight-fecundity or flight-longevity trade-off. Instead, flight changed the dynamics of energy use and reproduction as butterflies adopted a faster lifestyle in early life. High investment in early reproduction may have positive fitness effects in the wild, as long as food is available. Our results help to predict the effect of stressful conditions on the life history of insects living in a changing world.

The effect of repeated, lethal sampling on wild bee abundance and diversity - Eli S. Wyman; John S. Ascher; Zachariah J. Gezon; Rebecca E. Irwin; David W. Inouye (Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 2015)
Summary Bee pollinators provide a critical ecosystem service to wild and agricultural plants but are reported to be declining world‐wide due to anthropogenic change. Long‐term data on bee abundance and diversity are scarce, and the need for additional quantitative sampling using repeatable methods has been emphasized. Recently, monitoring programmes have begun using a standardized method that employs a combination of pan traps and sweep netting, resulting in lethal sampling of bees. This standardized method can remove a large number of bees from sites during each sampling day, raising concern that the sampling itself could have a negative effect on bee populations. We conducted an experiment to assess whether lethal sampling for bees using pan traps and netting affected bee abundance and diversity when done every two weeks throughout a season and over multiple years. We compared bee abundance, richness, evenness and functional group composition between sites that had been sampled every two weeks from 2009 to 2012 to similar sites not previously sampled. We found that the standardized method for sampling bees, with specimens from 132 morphospecies, did not affect bee communities in terms of abundance, rarefied richness, evenness, or functional group composition. Thus, our results indicate that the bee communities we sampled are robust to such sampling efforts, despite removing an average of 2862 bees per season. We discuss several explanations for why sampling did not affect bee abundance or community structure, including a density‐dependent response to reduced competition for resources. These results suggest that bee monitoring programmes sampling once every two weeks with pan traps and netting will not affect bee community structure. We urge researchers monitoring bees to utilize standardized protocols so that results can be compared across space and time.

Adaptation to climate and climate change in Rocky Mountain butterflies: Morphology, physiology, and behavior - H. J. MacLean (2015)
Heidi Joan MacLean: ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN ROCKY MOUNTAIN BUTTERFLIES: MORPHOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR (Under the direction of Joel G. Kingsolver and Lauren B. Buckley)

Caddisfly Larval growth and Development as Functions of Temperature Fluctuations During Pond Drying. - Melvin T. Smith (2015)

Quantifying direct vs. indirect effects of nectar robbers on male and female components of plant fitness - Candace Galen; P. E. Howell; Rebecca E. Irwin (Journal of Ecology, 2015)
SummaryPlants interact simultaneously with both mutualists and antagonists. While webs of plant–animal interactions in natural systems can be highly complex, most interactions can be simplified into those that are either direct (mediated through pairwise interactions) or indirect (mediated through third‐party species). Mechanistic studies of the direct and indirect pathways by which foliar herbivores affect plants have been well explored; however, mechanistic explorations of how floral herbivores, such as nectar robbers, affect total plant fitness via direct vs. indirect pathways have received less attention.The goal of this study was to assess the importance of direct vs. pollinator‐mediated indirect effects of a floral antagonist on female and male components of plant fitness. We focused on the hummingbird‐pollinated plant scarlet gilia,Ipomopsis aggregata, which is nectar‐robbed by the bumblebeeBombus occidentalis. Prior studies have found evidence for pollinator‐mediated indirect effects of robbing on female and male components ofI. aggregatafitness, but the mechanisms by which these indirect effects occur, and experimental evidence supporting or refuting direct effects of robbing, have been lacking.We found no evidence for direct effects of robbing on plant fitness. Robbers did not act as pollinators ofI. aggregatanor did they directly affect seed production by making nectar‐robber holes or removing nectar in hand‐pollinated flowers. Moreover, robbing had no direct effect on pollen production per flower or the ability of pollen from robbed flowers to sire seeds in hand pollinations.However, nectar robbing had indirect effects on plant reproduction mediated through per‐visit pollinator effectiveness at depositing pollen in robbed vs. unrobbed flowers. A simple model of a plant‐robber‐pollinator system suggested that robbing effects in general may occur through more indirect mechanisms when nectar removal by robbers is high relative to nectar replenishment, and that compensation for robbing is then more profitable through the production of additional flowers.Synthesis. Our results highlight the importance of indirect effects in mediating the fitness consequences of species interactions.

Mineralogical controls on the weathering characteristics of arid continental deposits of the Colorado Plateau - Ragnhild Johanne Tunheim (Bergen Open Research Archive (BORA) (University of Bergen), 2015)
The Permian to Jurassic stratigraphy of the Colorado Plateau includes a number of units that were deposited under arid depositional conditions. These units each show distinctive weathering characteristics which cannot solely be attributed to variation in depositional environment or burial history. The stratigraphic units are the Permian Cutler Formation, the Triassic Chinle Formation, the Jurassic Wingate Sandstone, the Kayenta Formation, the Navajo Sandstone, the Slickrock Member and the Moab Member. The objective of this study is to document and explain the differences in weathering pattern observed in these units. Typical slope angles were recorded to quantify weathering profiles. The Moab Member, the Kayenta Formation and the Wingate Sandstone have steep weathering slopes ranging from 70-90°. The main weathering processes are physical weathering leading to the formation of vertical joints and eventually splitting of the rocks. The Slickrock Member, the Navajo Sandstone and the Cutler Formation have lower weathering slopes ranging from 30-55°. These weathering profiles are most likely shaped by both physical and chemical weathering processes, through the process of spheroidal weathering. The weathering profile of the Chinle Formation is characterized by scree and the typical weathering slope is around 30°. The differences in weathering profiles are due to several factors. The first order control is the proportion of sandstone vs mudstone in the stratigraphic units. Sandstone and mudstone act very differently to stress. Sandstone responds in a more brittle way to stress than mudstones and consequently more mud rich units, such as the Chinle Formation, tend to be associated with scree slopes. The second order control is the dominant cement type in the stratigraphic units. Stratigraphic units with low and rounded weathering slopes are dominated by carbonate cement, while the steeper intervals are dominated by quartz cement. Carbonates are more easily dissolved when subject to chemical weathering and units with abundant carbonate cement will produce spheroidal outcrops. The weathering pattern can aslo be affected by external processes on a large scale, such processes can be river erosion or removal of underlying rock units. These processes can explain lateral differences in sandstones weathering patterns over short distances.

Causes and consequences of dominant and subdominant plant species effects on ecosystem function: using above-and belowground traits in an alpine meadow system - H. Thayer (2015)
While there has been extensive studies done on how dominant affect community dynamics and ecosystem function, fewer studies address the relative influence of dominant vs. subdominant species to affect systems. Further, not enough studies have been done addressing the role of dominant vs. subdominant species effects on above- and belowground functional traits that influence ecosystem function (Mariotte 2014). Our study addressed how functional traits of dominant and subdominant species mediated ecosystem processes such as the input and output of carbon. In an alpine meadow system, we conducted removals of dominant and subdominant species to see how above- and belowground functional traits—specific leaf area (SLA) and specific root length (SRL) respectively—and ecosystem functions (leaf area index (LAI) and soil respiration) were affected by the loss of either species. We established a randomized plot design plant removal experiment and measured carbon input (via LAI) and carbon output (via soil respiration) over a span of three years from 2013 to 2015 and above (SLA) and belowground traits (SRL) of dominant and subdominant species in 2015. We found that only aboveground functional traits (SLA) and ecosystem carbon input (LAI) responded to plant removals with carbon input increasing linearly with higher SLA in control than removal plots. On the other hand, the belowground traits (SRL) did not respond to our removal treatments and ecosystem carbon output initially increased with the loss of dominant species, but treatments converged in their responses overtime. Our results indicate that the loss of either a dominant or subdominant species would further affect climate change because carbon input decreased with the loss of either species, while the carbon output remained the same.

Climate variability slows evolutionary responses of Colias butterflies to recent climate change - J. G. Kingsolver; L. B. Buckley (Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 2015)
How does recent climate warming and climate variability alter fitness, phenotypic selection and evolution in natural populations? We combine biophysical, demographic and evolutionary models with recent climate data to address this question for the subalpine and alpine butterfly, Colias meadii , in the southern Rocky Mountains. We focus on predicting patterns of selection and evolution for a key thermoregulatory trait, melanin (solar absorptivity) on the posterior ventral hindwings, which affects patterns of body temperature, flight activity, adult and egg survival, and reproductive success in Colias . Both mean annual summer temperatures and thermal variability within summers have increased during the past 60 years at subalpine and alpine sites. At the subalpine site, predicted directional selection on wing absorptivity has shifted from generally positive (favouring increased wing melanin) to generally negative during the past 60 years, but there is substantial variation among years in the predicted magnitude and direction of selection and the optimal absorptivity. The predicted magnitude of directional selection at the alpine site declined during the past 60 years and varies substantially among years, but selection has generally been positive at this site. Predicted evolutionary responses to mean climate warming at the subalpine site since 1980 is small, because of the variability in selection and asymmetry of the fitness function. At both sites, the predicted effects of adaptive evolution on mean population fitness are much smaller than the fluctuations in mean fitness due to climate variability among years. Our analyses suggest that variation in climate within and among years may strongly limit evolutionary responses of ectotherms to mean climate warming in these habitats.

Does snowmelt timing affect bumble bee colony abundance? - R. Billingsley (2015)
Average temperatures are increasing globally and causing shifts in the timing of weather events such as spring snowmelt, which may have profound consequences on the phenology of many organisms. Working at the Rocky Mountain Biological Lab in central Colorado, we examined the relationship between spring snowmelt timing and patterns of bumble bee abundance throughout the foraging season. To do this, we conducted net sampling at each site every two weeks throughout the summer for 7 consecutive years (2009-2015) and recorded each bumble bee caught on a flower. We looked at the effects of year, date, snowmelt timing, annual precipitation, and temperature on bumble bee abundance using generalized linear mixed models in R. We found that the abundance of Bombus bifarius was significantly affected by the date of sampling, the date of first snowmelt, and temperature, while the abundance of Bombus appositus and Bombus flavifrons were significantly affected by date and precipitation. We conclude that earlier snowmelt dates may positively affect bumble bee populations by extending foraging seasons and thus allowing greater colony buildup.

Geographic variation in flowering phenology in Boechera stricta: testing for adaptive response to climate across the species range - R. Walker (2015)
As climate continues to shift, species existing over broad and variable ranges must exhibit the ability to adapt functional traits to novel environmental conditions. In this study, I used a large-scale common garden experiment to examine the variation in flowering time of 137 Boechera stricta (Brassicaceae) genotypes, representing populations from across the species range. The experiment found variance in date of first open flower among genotypes, with those originating at northern and high-elevation (i.e. shorter growing season) sites flowering sooner than those from southern and low-elevation sites. These results suggested that adaptation of flowering phenology has occurred on a fine scale and is driven by local environmental conditions historically experienced at each genotype’s site of origin. Broader-scale phenological adaptation was investigated by partitioning the genotypes into six population groups based on genetic divergence over approximately 2,000 generations; however, evidence for adaptation on this scale was not found. The finding that B. stricta has evolved on a fine scale in accordance with the local environment of origin may demonstrate the species’ ability to continue adapting to changing climatic conditions.

The conservation biology of the Uncompahgre fritillary and the related northern dingy fritillary - Hugh B. Britten (Montana State University ScholarWorks (Montana State University), 2015)

Evaluating genetic mechanisms and performance characteristics of alternative oilseed crops for on-farm biofuel production in Colorado - McKay, John; Byrne, Patrick; Brian Campbell; Johnson, Jerry; Seshadri, Arathi (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Dryland winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) cropping systems dominate most of the agricultural landscape in Colorado’s semi-arid eastern plains. Since this area’s climate is characterized by frequent heat and drought, it is important to maximize water use efficiency to make agricultural lands as productive as possible. Adding a spring crop in rotation with winter wheat intensifies the rotation, increasing water use efficiency by up to 37%. Recent research has explored further intensifying this rotation by adding an oilseed crop into a wheat – spring crop – fallow rotation during the fallow period. Ideally, the oilseed crop acts as a cover crop for part of the season and leaves enough time at the end of the season to regenerate water in the soil profile before planting wheat in the fall. The oil from this crop can be used to produce on-farm biofuels, offsetting petroleum diesel costs without displacing high-value food crops. Additionally, the meal from this crop acts as a value-added byproduct by providing feed for livestock. Since traditional oilseeds such as soybean (Glycine max) and rapeseed (Brassica napus) do not perform well in Colorado, several alternative oilseeds have been tested to assess whether they can fill this niche. Camelina (Camelina sativa) has shown great potential, with high oil content and inherent resistance to many biotic and abiotic stressors. Other potential oilseeds include Brassica juncea and Brassica carinata, but both of these species have exhibited longer life cycles and lower yields than camelina. A major challenge to camelina production in Colorado is a susceptibility to heat stress during reproductive periods. Both short periods of intense heat stress and longer periods of mild heat stress can cause floral and seed abortion, resulting in reduced yield. In the current study, a quantitative trait locus (QTL) approach is used to identify heat and drought tolerance mechanisms and yield components, explore the extent of pleiotropy, epistasis, and linkage, and identify promising lines for study or production. Genetic resources for camelina are becoming more readily available and a newly developed genetic map with improved marker density was used for QTL discovery. Replicated field trials were performed during the 2014 growing season in Fort Collins and Greeley, Colorado, under differential irrigation treatments at each site to collect phenotypic data on a variety of traits. Sixteen new QTL were discovered from this data, along with nine QTL using data from Colorado trials of the same population in 2009 and 2010 performed by Enjalbert (2011). Seven QTL were discovered for yield, however, no QTL were found in more than two environments, indicating a lack of stable QTL for this trait. This was in contrast to results from Enjalbert (2011) where stable QTL for yield across environments were detected using the original, mainly AFLP generated, genetic map by Gehringer et al. (2006). This underscores the high amount of variation that can be caused by environment. QTL for other traits, such as plant height and days to flowering, were detected that were more robust, however, no QTL were detected with either data set that spanned more than three environments. Two loci were identified that affected multiple traits, supplying evidence of either pleiotropy or close linkage of genes. Several RIL performed well in multiple environments, indicating potential for production in Colorado, however, these lines were not in common with previous studies, so further trials will be needed to confirm consistently stable yields. In addition to the camelina QTL study, a two-year variety trial of Brassica carinata was performed in Fort Collins, CO during the 2013 and 2014 growing seasons under limited and full irrigation. Collaboration with the private Canadian oilseed company Agrisoma Biosciences spurred interest in reevaluating the potential of this alternative oilseed in Colorado cropping systems. Agrisoma Biosciences developed early flowering and early maturing germplasm that performs well in the Canadian prairie and is interested in testing their germplasm in new regions with potential for production. The company provided six lines for the trial, five experimental lines and one commercial check cultivar. Mean flowering time was over 13 days longer than previously tested African accessions that had been deemed too late flowering to be competitive in Colorado’s climate. Mean yields were low as well, at 669 kg ha⁻¹. The commercial check cultivar, A100, outperformed all of the experimental lines, with a mean yield of 1081 kg ha⁻¹ across environments. With a wide margin between the other lines and A100, this commercial cultivar was clearly more successful than any of the experimental lines. However, yields of this one cultivar were not sufficiently impressive to recommend on-farm testing of the crop.

Consuming ideals: an archaeological investigation of the Social Hygiene Movement in Colorado - Kristy Kay Griffin; Kwiatkowski, Lynn; Van Buren, Mary; Payne, Sarah (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Historical investigations of the Social Hygiene Movement (1890s-1930s) tend to focus on the urban origins of the concerns that sparked much of the resulting reform efforts. Furthermore, archaeological investigations that address artifacts associated with the Social Hygiene Movement often focus on either an urban or a rural setting, and usually only examine a single aspect of the movement rather than considering the impact of the totality of the movement’s ideology on American consumer behaviors. As a result, little is known about the materialization of the Social Hygiene Movement in the archaeological record and the differential appearance of associated artifacts at urban relative to rural sites. This project seeks to define Social Hygiene Movement-associated artifact types and undertake a comparative analysis of the occurrence of these artifacts at two urban and four rural sites in the state of Colorado in an effort to better understand the early material expressions of the movement in rural regions of the United States. This study was designed to 1) explore the assumption that artifacts related to health, hygiene, and cleanliness should appear at rural sites later than at urban sites, 2) determine if the Social Hygiene Movement manifested differently in rural regions relative to urban areas as evidenced in the archaeological record by types of consumer products purchased, and 3) if differences do exist, provide information about what other contextual and ideological factors may have caused the divergence. This project concludes that rural residents were likely aware of the emerging health, hygiene, and cleanliness ideals from nearly the beginning of the Social Hygiene Movement. However, differences in the frequency and types of products purchased suggest that consumer choices were informed by a shared system of rural values developed in opposition to the hegemonic rhetoric of Progressive Era reformers. The evidence presented in this study indicates that rural residents did not alter their hygienic practices and consumer behaviors to be in-line with urban standards, but rather selected the ideological aspects of the SHM that reinforced their rural identities and incorporated the products and practices which complemented their daily realities and social norms. The results highlight the importance of utilizing material studies in conjunction with historical research to achieve more nuanced understandings of the origins of the Social Hygiene Movement and question commonly-held assumptions based on the dominant discourse often evidenced in documentary sources.

Integrating macroecological metrics and community taxonomic structure - Y. J. Zhang; A. J. Rominger; John Harte (Ecology Letters, 2015)
John Harte,1* Andrew Rominger2 We extend macroecological theory based on the maximum entropy principle from species level to and Wenyu Zhang3 higher taxonomic categories, thereby predicting distributions of species richness across genera or families and the dependence of abundance and metabolic rate distributions on taxonomic tree structure. Predictions agree with qualitative trends reported in studies on hyper-dominance in tropical tree species, mammalian body size distributions and patterns of rarity in worldwide plant communities. Predicted distributions of species richness over genera or families for birds, arthro- pods, plants and microorganisms are in excellent agreement with data. Data from an intertidal invertebrate community, but not from a dispersal-limited forest, are in excellent agreement with a predicted new relationship between body size and abundance. Successful predictions of the origi- nal species level theory are unmodified in the extended theory. By integrating macroecology and taxonomic tree structure, maximum entropy may point the way towards a unified framework for understanding phylogenetic community structure.

Genes Suggest Ancestral Colour Polymorphisms Are Shared across Morphologically Cryptic Species in Arctic Bumblebees - M. V. Berezin; B. Cederberg; A. M. Byvaltsev; J. Huang; F. Odegaard; S. T. Williams; P. H. Williams; C. S. Sheffield; C. Rasmussen; L. L. Richardson (PLoS One, 2015)
Our grasp of biodiversity is fine-tuned through the process of revisionary taxonomy. If species do exist in nature and can be discovered with available techniques, then we expect these revisions to converge on broadly shared interpretations of species. But for the primarily arctic bumblebees of the subgenus Alpinobombus of the genus Bombus, revisions by some of the most experienced specialists are unusual for bumblebees in that they have all reached different conclusions on the number of species present. Recent revisions based on skeletal morphology have concluded that there are from four to six species, while variation in colour pattern of the hair raised questions as to whether at least seven species might be present. Even more species are supported if we accept the recent move away from viewing species as morphotypes to viewing them instead as evolutionarily independent lineages (EILs) using data from genes. EILs are recognised here in practice from the gene coalescents that provide direct evidence for their evolutionary independence. We show from fitting both general mixed Yule/coalescent (GMYC) models and Poisson-tree-process (PTP) models to data for the mitochondrial COI gene that there is support for nine species in the subgenus Alpinobombus. Examination of the more slowly evolving nuclear PEPCK gene shows further support for a previously unrecognised taxon as a new species in northwestern North America. The three pairs of the most morphologically similar sister species are separated allopatrically and prevented from interbreeding by oceans. We also find that most of the species show multiple shared colour patterns, giving the appearance of mimicry among parts of the different species. However, reconstructing ancestral colour-pattern states shows that speciation is likely to have cut across widespread ancestral polymorphisms, without or largely without convergence. In the particular case of Alpinobombus, morphological, colour-pattern, and genetic groups show little agreement, which may help to explain the lack of agreement among previous taxonomic revisions.

Effects of Light Environment on Recovery from Harvest and Antibacterial Properties of OshÃ¡ Ligusticum porteri (Apiaceae) - R. P. Blessin; Martin A. A.; Emily H Mooney (Economic Botany, 2015)
The ability to inhibit Bacillus cereus decreased in extracts from plants harvested from high light environments, which follows plant defense theory, and harvest sustainability in L. porteri is equivocal among the light environments examined in this study, although some medicinal properties vary.

Environmental Correlates and Fitness Consequences of a Flower Color Polymorphism in Boechera stricta. - Ansley McDurmon (2015)

Analysis of temporal change in high-elevation plant community composition, East River Basin, Colorado, USA. - Stephanie Zorio (2015)

Does Bumble Bee Diet Breadth vary with the Floral Abundance in a Meadow? - G. Hennage (2015)
Years of early snowmelt tend to have a decrease in floral abundance throughout the year. This causes flowers to be more susceptible to frost and drought stress. Based on which flowers are successful this can affect bumble bee diet breadth due to the direct correlation between bumble bee proboscis length and flower corolla length. It was found that there is no relation between Bombus appositus diet breadth and floral abundance. Other factors such as floral richness, and overall bumble bee abundance also proved to not have an influence on diet breadth. The relationship between Delphinium barbeyi abundance and the proportion of flowers visited also did not have any significance.

Disturbance legacies and nutrient limitation influence interactions between grazers and algae in high elevation streams - Jennifer M. Moslemi; M. Alvarez; A. R. McIntosh; B. L. Peckarsky (Ecosphere, 2015)
Debate about control of interaction strength among species is fueled by variation in environmental contexts affecting food webs. We used extensive surveys and two field experiments to test the individual and interactive influences of variation in the assemblages and associated traits of grazers as shaped by the legacy of disturbance, nutrient limitation and the presence of top predators on the accrual of basal resources. We quantified hydrologic variation and streambed movement to describe the legacy of disturbance and sampled biota of 20 streams over five years in a high‐elevation catchment in Colorado, USA. Grazer assemblages switched from caddisfly‐dominated to mayfly‐dominated as disturbance increased. We manipulated the composition of grazer assemblages and the availability of nutrients (N and P) within flow‐through mesocosms assembled adjacent to 10 streams, and also deployed larger in‐stream channels manipulating the presence of top predators (brook trout) in five streams varying in disturbance regimes. In both experiments we compared the rate of accrual of benthic algae and the strength of grazer‐algal interactions among treatments. We observed no indirect effects of top predators on grazer mobility, grazer consumption of algae, or accrual of algal biomass (no trophic cascades). However, in both experiments accrual rates of algae yielded a unimodal pattern and grazer impacts on algae decreased with increasing disturbance, but only at ambient (limiting) nutrient conditions. When nutrients were amended in the mesocosm experiment, algal accrual was uniformly high and grazer impacts on algae were consistently low. Reduced algae accrual at high disturbance levels may be explained by direct effects of environmental harshness on algae, and at low disturbance by indirect effects on grazer traits (behaviors) rather than on grazer density. In more benign streams per capita and per unit biomass grazer impacts on algae were high and drift dispersal was low, both behaviors that reduced accrual of algae. We conclude that nutrient limitation and indirect effects of disturbance on accrual of algae mediated by grazer traits can be stronger than indirect effects of predators on algae, providing a new contribution to the debate about the influence of environmental context on the strength of food web interactions.

Population-level consequences of phenotypic plasticity in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris). - Adriana A. Maldonado-Chaparro (2015)

Context-dependent reproductive isolation mediated by floral scent and color - A. Jurgens; Mascha Bischoff; Robert A. Raguso; Diane R. Campbell (Evolution, 2015)

Petroglyphs of Western Colorado and the Northern Ute Indian Reservation as Interpreted by Clifford Duncan - Carol Patterson (2015)
Clifford Duncan, a Northern Ute elder, believed in educating the public to know and understand the meaning of Ute petroglyphs. By doing this, he believed it would help to preserve and protect them. Over the course of eight years, Clifford and the author visited and revisited all of these sites, discussing what they might represent. Clifford’s father was an Uncompahgre Ute and wanted Clifford to know the traditional homelands of the Uncompahgres in western Colorado. Clifford made special trips all through the Uncompahgre Plateau, seeking out any Ute petroglyphs and cultural sites. Later, he and the author visited many of the petroglyphs on the Uintah-Ouray Reservation, which were authored by the Uncompahgre and White River Utes. The interpretations of the petroglyphs are supplemented with cultural and political history, and ethnographic information from scholars provides a deep appreciation as to what makes Ute petroglyphs so unique and fascinating. Full-color illus.

Reservoir and Source Potential of Eocene Microbialites, Green River Formation, USA - Nick Cestari (KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas), 2015)
In recent years, large petroleum discoveries within the lacustrine microbialite facies of pre-salt systems of offshore Brazil, Angola, and Gabon have increased interest in the potential of microbial carbonates as reservoir rocks. Whereas a multitude of studies have been conducted on microbialites and the associated lacustrine facies separately, there is still little known regarding whether there are definitive dissimilarities between the geochemical footprints of microbialites and associated lithofacies within a system. To explore this unknown, organic geochemistry was evaluated with the aim of comparing the microbialite facies (stromatolites and thrombolites) with the associated lacustrine carbonates (dolomitic marlstone, ooid grainstone, peloidal packstone and wackestone) to test if there are dissimilarities in regard to reservoir and source potential. Specifically, the goal is to understand the petroleum significance of lacustrine microbialites deposited in various lake conditions. Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and extractable organic material were analyzed for microbialite and associated lacustrine lithofacies in the Green River Formation of Colorado and Utah. The samples were from three cores: two from Piceance Basin (Nielsen 17-1 and Colorado Core 01A) and one from Uinta Basin (1 Coyote Wash). Additional hand samples collected from an outcrop at Douglas Pass, Colorado, represent shallow lake-margin deposits. The lake of the Piceance Creek Basin was a hydrologically closed, hypersaline lake characterized by deposition of organic rich microbialites, and dolomitic marlstones. In contrast, the Uinta Basin lake was a hydrologically open lake characterized by accumulation of organically lean microbialites, siltstone, mudstone, ooid grainstone, and peloidal packstone and wackestone. Gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) analysis yielded biomarker distributions distinct between the lacustrine microbialite facies and the associated lithofacies. The abundance of biomarkers associated with hydrocarbon potential is 10 to 100x greater in the microbialites than in the associated lacustrine carbonate lithofacies. Understanding the geochemical footprints of lacustrine microbialites and how they differ from associated carbonates as a function of depositional environment is crucial in identifying prospects in similar ancient reservoir systems.

Pigmentation as stress response in A. septentrionalis. - A. Linder (2015)

Uncompahgre fault geometry: A seismic, field, and gravity study near Nucla, Colorado, Paradox Basin, USA - Carter B. Timbel (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Seismic, well, field and gravity data are used to further understand the Uncompahgre fault near Nucla, Colorado, Paradox Basin, USA. The data help explain the complex sedimen- tary and structural history associated with faulting and salt flowage along the eastern margin of the Paradox Basin. Near Nucla, Colorado, 2D seismic lines document several episodes of thrust tectonics, sedimentation, and salt flowage associated with the late Paleozoic-age Uncompahgre Thrust. Prominent unconformities and disconformities within the Permian Cutler Group are vis- ible in the study area. Faults and unconformities seen on seismic data give an indication for the timing of salt flow caused by episodic sedimentation triggered by Uncompahgre fault movement. In addition, along-strike variability of Uncompahgre fault is evident in the seismic data. Along- strike Uncompahgre fault structural variation has been a subject of scientific debate, and the data collection near Nucla, Colorado reveal two end member structural styles of the Uncompahgre fault. A gravity (Bouger Anomaly) study in the area shows an anomalous low-gravity zone to the northeast (hinterland) side of the Uncompahgre fault. These gravity data suggest the presence of an allochtonous block in the hanging wall of the Uncompahgre fault, overriding evaporitic (Her- mosa Group) sediments. Integrated, these data offer a more complete analysis of Uncompahgre fault character in southwest Colorado than previously documented.

2: Ute Rock Art of Western Colorado - Carol Patterson (2015)
Chants have no words. They are spiritually uplifting in a motion.-Clifford DuncanThe rock art of the Uncompahgre Plateau in western Colorado includes the Uncompahgre and Gunnison River drainage system on the eastern side, and the Dolores River drainage on the western side. According to Clifford, this territory was his father's ancestral land. The selection of petroglyphs sites included here was chosen for its clear images, distinct style, and age estimations. The rock art included outlines the broad array of petroglyphs found on the Uncompahgre Plateau, with examples from each era, depicting various categories of images.METHODOLOGY AND INTERPRETATIONThe age estimations of the petroglyphs of the Uncompahgre Plateau are based on engraving style, weathering, and direct dating if possible, with relative dates determined from soils and archaeological material associated with the panels. Chronology of styles is based on a large database of sites composed of images found throughout the plateau. Supporting data from current literature and ethnographic analogy is employed. This may allow for inferred interpretations of petroglyph panels that may represent social activities, such as game drives, battle scenes, or tribal ceremonies, such as the Bear Dance. Native consultants have suggested that images in a panel may also represent spiritual entities, such as rain or cloud deities, spirits of the deceased, or even iconographie symbols. The principles of symbol interpretation rely on consistency checks, frequency checks, and symbol affinities gathered from a comprehensive database (Patterson 2011). These multiple techniques follow the principles of cryptanalysis, which provides lines of evidence for the rock-art interpretation and analysis.REVIEW OF CULTURAL CONTEXTA literature search of the archeological context for this field of study in western Colorado has been documented, most notably by Reed and Gebauer (2004). The standard, Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Northern Colorado River Basin (Reed and Metcalf 1999), is the most comprehensive for understanding the prehistory for this area. A historical context for the rock art appears in Appendix D of Class I Cultural Resource Overview of the Bureau of Land Management's Uncompahgre Field Office, Western Colorado (Patterson 2011). This document is reproduced herein as Table A.l in Appendix A.Petroglyphs (engraved) and pictographs (painted) on rock surfaces are difficult to date and to place within established archeological chronologies. It is also difficult to place them within cultural affinities; those created during the Archaic and Formative Eras are harder to determine than those created during the Protohistoric and Historic Eras (Figures 4 and 5). Based on extensive ethnographic information for this region, cultural diagnostics, such as the horse, cowboy hats, and fringed leggings, clearly identify historic Ute rock art. The Utes were the first Native Americans to adopt the horse culture. Large pedestrian, shieldbearing figures with spikey headdresses seen in petroglyphs may identify Paiutes rather than Utes, simply because Paiutes never adopted the horse culture. Figures 6A and 6B show a warrior carrying a pedestrian shield large enough to protect vital body parts but awkward to carry on horseback. In contrast, human stick figures shown in Figures 6C and 6D have the cultural diagnostics of Utes with equestrain trappings.It may be possible to determine Numic from Ancestral Pueblo cultural affiliations in images created during the Protohistoric Era by considering body style and symbol affiliations from the ethnographic and archeological record of the Ancestral Pueblo of the Southwest. Rock art of the San Juan Basketmakers and Pueblo II found in the San Juan Basin is typified by hairstyle, sometimes by body style, and by depictions of traditional deities or important food sources. In contrast, Numic hunter-gatherer traditions depict flat heads, sometimes with horns, and have a preference for depicting game animals, trails, bear paws, and tree iconography. …

Lacustrine lithofacies, depositional processes, and diagenesis of the Uteland Butte Member, Green River Formation, eastern Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado - S. Katherine Logan (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)

Altered Fire Regimes and the Persistence of Quaking Aspen in the Rocky Mountains: A Literature Review - Aaron Rosenblum (Open Journal of Forestry, 2015)
The persistence of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) is of significant importance to land managers in the Rocky Mountain region. Fire suppression in the past century has been im- plicated as a mechanism influencing aspen population dynamics, as aspen are generally consi- dered an early seral disturbance adapted species. The heterogeneity of aspen community assem- blages and fire regimes makes it difficult to discern what the result of fire suppression has been at large spatial and temporal scales. Decision makers should investigate the questions at hand at the stand level in their study location to best determine the mechanisms at play, as well as consider future potential changes to the system.

Alfalfa reference crop evapotranspiration in Colorado and its use for irrigation scheduling - Abdulkariem Mukhtar Aljrbi; Qian, Yaling; Hansen, Neil; Davis, Jessica G.; Andales, Allan A. (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
The goal of irrigation scheduling is efficient use of water such that water is applied to the field for optimal crop production. Previous studies have optimized irrigation scheduling using different models to manage sprinkler irrigation. This research evaluated approaches for obtaining alfalfa reference evapotranspiration (ETr) and its use in a new irrigation scheduling model for a furrow irrigation system. The objectives of this research were to: 1) Compare seasonal trends of daily ETr from the American Society of Civil Engineers Standardized Penman-Monteith (ASCE-SPM) equation and the Penman-Kimberly (PK) equation along a climatic gradient in Colorado, 2) Verify the agreement between calculated ETr from the ASCE-SPM equation and measured ETr from a lysimeter during the 2010 season for the Arkansas Valley of Colorado and correct the lysimeter ETr for alfalfa overgrowth, and 3) Test the ASCE-SPM ETr along with a locally adapted Kcr curve for corn in an irrigation scheduling spreadsheet tool for simulating the daily soil water deficit of furrow irrigated corn in northeast Colorado. The two reference ET equations were compared using R2, Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE), Relative Error (RE), and index of agreement (d). The R2 values ranged from 0.93 to 0.99; d ranged from 0.98 to 0.99, RMSE ranged from 0.29 to 0.75 mm/d, and RE ranged from -6.35 to 1.91 %. In a comparison of the ASCE-SPM and PK equations at the Fort Collins and Rogers Mesa sites in 2011, differences were observed between the energy balance and aerodynamic terms of each equation. The energy budget calculated by the ASCE-SPM was generally 28% lower than the energy budget calculated by the PK equation at both locations for 2011. On the other hand, the aerodynamic term calculated by the ASCE-SPM equation was from 27 - 28 % higher than the aerodynamic term calculated from PK during most of 2011 at both locations. The second objective of this research compared alfalfa ET measured with a lysimeter in the center of a 4.06 ha furrow irrigated field at the Colorado State University Arkansas Valley Research Center in Rocky Ford, CO to the calculated values from the ASCE-SPM equation in periods of reference conditions in 2010. Four days were selected when alfalfa in the lysimeter was 50 - 55 cm tall, unstressed, completely covering the ground, but with its canopy extending beyond the outer walls of the lysimeter. On these dates, hourly lysimeter ETr was 0.08 to 0.11 mm/h higher than ASCE-SPM ETr. The theoretical surface area of the lysimeter was 9.181 m², while the observed effective canopy area was up to 12.461 m² due to overgrowth. Surface area corrections for the overgrowth increased the index of agreement (d) between hourly lysimeter ETr and ASCE-SPM ETr from the 0.96 - 0.98 range to the 0.99 - 1.0 range. These results showed that it is important to use the correct effective canopy area when computing ETr from a weighing lysimeter. The CIS model for calculating water deficit under a furrow irrigation system with the addition of some data from field measurements such as soil moisture content, gross irrigation, climate data, and plant height and leaf area index generated good results. The water deficit under corn was simulated at the Limited Irrigation Research Farm (LIRF) located near Greeley, Colorado during the years 2010, 2011 and 2012. Daily corn crop ET (ETc) calculated from daily ASCE-SPM ETr and a locally-derived crop coefficient curve (Kcr) were used by the CIS for daily soil water deficit calculations via water balance. This data was used to test a furrow irrigation system via the CIS model and to simulate the field irrigation by predicting the time and the amount of water for the next irrigation. The results showed good agreement between calculated and measured deficits where index of agreement (d) ranged from 0.5 to 0.99 for most years of this study, specifically when measurements of soil water content (SWC) were inserted bi-weekly or monthly. The RMSE did not exceed 2.54 mm when using SWC once per season in 2011, while bi-weekly measurements recorded d to be 0.96 in 2010, 0.99 in 2011 and 0.70 in 2012. Also, the CIS showed that irrigation water usage could be reduced by 30 to 50% through use of CIS.

Competition for pollination and the evolution of flowering time - Nickolas M. Waser; Nickolas M. Waser (American Naturalist, 2015)
This item was digitized from a paper original and/or a microfilm copy. If you need higher-resolution images for any content in this item, please contact us at repository@u.library.arizona.edu.

Evolution of herbivory in Drosophilidae linked to loss of behaviors, antennal responses, odorant receptors and ancestral diet - Richard S. Mitchell; J. G. Hildebrand; C. P. Faucher; R. L. Lapoint; Noah K Whiteman (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 2015)
SignificanceThe evolution of herbivory in animals is rare but has resulted in major adaptive radiations. Its rarity suggests that there are barriers to colonization of plants. Behavioral adaptations, involving host plant finding, are likely the first to evolve during the transition to herbivory. A recently evolved herbivorous fly species was derived from yeast-feeding ancestors. This herbivorous fly, unlike its yeast-feeding relatives, lost attraction to yeast volatiles, the ability to detect yeast volatiles, and three genes that encode olfactory receptors critical for detecting yeast volatiles inDrosophila melanogaster. Loss-of-function mutations may play a role in the transition to herbivory in insects, which account for nearly 25% of all species of life.

Multi‐decadal Stochastic Streamflow Projections and Application to Water Resources Decision Making in the Colorado River Basin - Solomon Tassew Erkyihun (CU Scholar (University of Colorado Boulder), 2015)
Effective water resources planning and management requires skillful decisions on multiyear or decadal timeframes. In basins such as the Colorado River Basin (CRB), streamflow is not stationary but exhibits variability that reflects teleconnections with large scale climate indices such as Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). This research addresses this problem with four main contributions: It develops a stochastic streamflow simulation model and decadal scale streamflow projections based on these climate indices, compares this with other models recently developed, identifies and quantifies periods of unpredictability, and demonstrates the value of adding decadal scale projections to existing decision criteria in the CRB Supply and Demand Study (Basin Study). The novel WKNN model identifies and reconstructs dominant signals in the AMO and PDO using wavelet analysis, simulates each using block K-nearest neighbor (K-NN) bootstrap, then simulates the streamflow using a K-NN bootstrap conditioned on the simulated climate forcings. Traditional methods develop similar models on the flow timeseries and have limited skill in projections. Here, the climate indices are modeled and streamflow generated conditionally, exploiting the skill in climate indices. Our WKNN model is compared with other recently developed methods – Conditional Hidden Markov Model and the enhanced wavelet autoregressive model – with respect to skill of projections over a range of lead times. To understand and quantify the time-varying predictability of streamflow, we recover the underlying dynamics using a nonlinear dynamical system based approach. Time varying iv predictability is assessed by quantifying the divergence of trajectories in the phase space with time, using Local Lyapunov Exponents (LLE). Ensembles of projections from a current time are generated by block resampling trajectories from the K-nearest neighbors of the current vector in the phase space. Decadal scale WKNN projections and time varying predictabilities indicated by LLE are demonstrated to enhance existing decision criteria in the CRB Study that identify system vulnerability and invoke options and strategies to increase water availability or reduce demand through conservation or efficiency. Based on projections being wet, dry or unpredictable, improved decisions may reduce cost or reduce shortage and are illustrated by tradeoff curves of risk of shortage vs. cost.

Using the literature to test pollination syndromes - some methodological cautions - A. R. Rech; J. Ollerton; Mary V. Price; Nickolas M. Waser (Journal of Pollination Ecology, 2015)
“Pollination syndromes” are specific combinations of floral traits that are proposed to evolve convergently across angiosperm lineages in response to different types of animal pollinators. In spite of their long history, pollination syndromes have not been tested adequately–they rarely have been examined critically to determine how well they describe floral trait diversity or predict pollinators. In a recent meta-analysis of data from the literature, Rosas-Guerrero et al. (2014) provide a welcome test that draws on insights from past studies. At the same time, their study illustrates several difficulties of meta-analysis approaches in general, and for pollination biology in particular. Here we discuss those difficulties and propose some solutions. We first consider how to gather studies from the literature without introducing unintended bias, such as the old-fashioned method of working backward from cited literature. We next consider how to deal with difficulties that invariably arise when extracting and analyzing often-incomplete information from heterogeneous studies. Finally we discuss issues of interpreting and presenting the results in the most informative manner. We conclude that although Rosas-Guerrero et al. (2014) and other studies such as Ollerton et al. (2009) have arrived at different conclusions about the utility of pollination syndromes, their results are not necessarily incompatible.

Microgeographic patterns of genetic divergence and adaptation across environmental gradients in Boechera stricta(Brassicaceae) - Nadeesha Perera; Bashira Chowdhury (The American Naturalist, 2015)

Relating Pollinator Foraging Behavior to Potential for Self-fertilization in Delphenium barbeyi Different Floral Display Sizes. - C. Whiting (2015)

How an environment's moisture heterogeneity affects a community's traits - Lake Crawford (2015)
A plant’s functional traits, which aid with survival, growth, and reproduction, are shaped by different abiotic and evolutionary elements. Some communities have a larger degree of variation in their functional traits, and this study aimed to see if this variation is directly linked to the level of environmental heterogeneity. This was accomplished by looking at differing traits of plant communities at 5 different sites. The analyzed traits were SLA, LDMC, and plant height. These traits were plotted against the environmental variation (as determined by soil moisture or microclimate) to determine if there was a correlation between the two. The data indicate that there is a positive correlation between the log(sd of LDMC) and the mean sd of soil moisture, but there is no correlation between the log(sd of height) or log(sd of SLA) and the mean sd of soil moisture. This demonstrates that, in some cases, a wider range of functional diversity can be driven by greater environmental heterogeneity.

FOSSIL PLANTS AND PALYNOMORPHS FROM THE LATE PALEOZOIC CUTLER FORMATION, EASTERN PARADOX BASIN - Kendall R. Grazul (2015)
The late Paleozoic Cutler Formation, where exposed near the modern-day town of Gateway, Colorado, has traditionally been interpreted as the product of alluvial fan deposition within the easternmost portion of the Paradox Basin. The Paradox Basin formed between the western margin of the Uncompahgre Uplift segment of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains and the western paleoshoreline of the North American portion of Pangea. The Paradox Basin region is commonly thought to have experienced semi-arid to arid conditions and warm temperatures during the Pennsylvanian and Permian. Evidence described in this paper support prior interpretations regarding paleoclimate conditions and the inferred depositional environment for the Cutler Formation near Gateway, Colorado. Plant fossils collected from the late Paleozoic Cutler Formation in The Palisade Wilderness Study Area (managed by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management) of western Colorado include Calamites, Walchia, Pecopteris, and many calamitean fragments. The flora collected is interpreted to have lived in an arid or semi-arid environment that included wet areas of limited areal extent located near the apex of an alluvial fan system. Palynological analysis of samples collected revealed the presence of the common Pennsylvanian palynomorphs Thymospora pseudothiessenii and Lophotriletes microsaetosus. These fossils suggest that warm and at least seasonally and locally wet conditions existed in the area during the time that the plants were growing. All evidence of late Paleozoic plant life collected during this study was found along the western margin of the Uncompahgre Uplift segment of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. During the late Paleozoic, sediment was eroded from the Uncompahgre Uplift and deposited in the adjacent Paradox Basin. The preservation of plant fossils in the most proximal parts of the Paradox Basin is remarkable due to the fact that much of the proximal Cutler Formation consists of conglomerates and sandstones deposited as debris flow and by fluvial systems. The plants must have grown in a protected setting, possibly an abandoned channel on the alluvial fan, and been rapidly buried in the subsiding Paradox Basin. It is likely that there was abundant vegetation in and adjacent to low-lying wet areas at the time the Cutler Formation was deposited.

Habitat Selection in Nicrophoryus investigator and defodiens. - K. Menzel (2015)
We investigated habitat selection in Nicrophorus investigator, an obligate carrion breeder. The source-sink hypothesis states that some environments will be resource rich and produce a high amount of offspring while other environments will be resource low and produce a low amount of offspring. Carcasses were put out in pairs with one carcass in the meadow and one in the aspen. N. investigator and N. defodiens prefer the meadow to the aspen, the size of the Nicrophorus beetles was larger in the meadow than the aspen, competition was higher in the aspen than in the meadow, and the only successful broods were in the meadow. All of these support that the meadow and aspen are source and sink environments respectively.

Convergent ecosystem responses to 23-year ambient and manipulated warming link advancing snowmelt and shrub encroachment to transient and long-term climate–soil carbon feedback - S. R. Saleska; C. R. Levy; John Harte (Global Change Biology, 2015)
Ecosystem responses to climate change can exert positive or negative feedbacks on climate, mediated in part by slow- moving factors such as shifts in vegetation community composition. Long-term experimental manipulations can be used to examine such ecosystem responses, but they also present another opportunity: inferring the extent to which contemporary climate change is responsible for slow changes in ecosystems under ambient conditions. Here, using 23 years of data, we document a shift from nonwoody to woody vegetation and a loss of soil carbon in ambient plots and show that these changes track previously shown similar but faster changes under experimental warming. This allows us to infer that climate change is the cause of the observed shifts in ambient vegetation and soil carbon and that the vegetation responses mediate the observed changes in soil carbon. Our findings demonstrate the realism of an experimental manipulation, allow attribution of a climate cause to observed ambient ecosystem changes, and dem- onstrate how a combination of long-term study of ambient and experimental responses to warming can identify mechanistic drivers needed for realistic predictions of the conditions under which ecosystems are likely to become carbon sources or sinks over varying timescales.

Scaling from traits to ecosystems: Developing a general trait driver theory via integrating trait-based and metabolic scaling theories - V. M. Savage; Campbell O. Webb; L. L. Sloat; S. P. Bonser; J. Norberg; C. Violle; Brian J. Enquist; Amanda Henderson (Advances in Ecological Research, 2015)

Phenological responses to climate change do not exhibit phylogenetic signal in a subalpine plant community - Paul J. CaraDonna; David W. Inouye (Ecology, 2015)
Phylogenetic relationships may underlie species‐specific phenological sensitivities to abiotic variation and may help to predict these responses to climate change. Although shared evolutionary history may mediate both phenology and phenological sensitivity to abiotic variation, few studies have explicitly investigated whether this is the case. We explore phylogenetic signal in flowering phenology and in phenological sensitivity to temperature and snowmelt using a 39‐year record of flowering from the Colorado Rocky Mountains, USA that includes dates of first, peak, and last flowering, and flowering duration for 60 plant species in a subalpine plant community. Consistent with other studies, we found evidence in support of phylogenetic signal in first flowering date. However, the strength and significance of that signal were inconsistent across other measures of flowering in this plant community: peak flowering date exhibited the strongest phylogenetic signal, followed by first flowering date; last flowering date and duration of flowering exhibited patterns indistinguishable from random trait evolution. In contrast to first and peak flowering date, phenological sensitivities of all flowering measures to temperature and snowmelt did not exhibit a phylogenetic signal. These findings show that within ecological communities, phylogenetic signal in phenology does not necessarily imply phylogenetic signal in phenological sensitivities to abiotic variation.

An altitudinal cline in UV floral pattern corresponds with a behavioral change of a generalist pollinator assemblage - M. H. Koski; T. L. Ashman (Ecology, 2015)
Spatial variation in pollinator communities or behaviors can underlie floral diversification. Floral traits in the UV spectrum are common and mediate plant–pollinator interactions, but the role of pollinators in driving or maintaining their geographic variation has not been fully explored. We identify an altitudinal cline of increasing relative size of the UV bullseye pattern inArgentina anserina(Rosaceae) flowers, and assess whether pollination context contributes to clinal variation. At four sites that varied in altitude, we document the pollinator assemblage, and pollinator preference and visitation behavior. We then determine how pollinator visits affected pollen receipt and export. Finally, we describe how the functional relationship between UV floral phenotype and pollen receipt changed with altitude. Floral UV bullseye size increased with altitude, which corresponded with a change from a hymenopteran‐ to a dipteran‐dominated pollinator assemblage. While dipteran and hymenopteran preferences for bullseye size were similar, flowers with large bullseyes received more foraging visits than those with small bullseyes at higher altitude. The reverse was observed at the lower altitudes; pollinators approached large‐bullseye flowers often but rarely foraged. These differences are expected to affect fitness because foraging visits increased pollen export and receipt. Indeed, when natural variation in bullseye size was considered, it had a stronger effect on pollen receipt than other traits (flower size, display, or color). Plants with larger bullseyes tended to receive more pollen at the highest‐altitude site, while those with smaller ones received more pollen at the lowest‐altitude site. Results suggest that altitudinal changes in preference and behavior of the overall pollinator assemblage, but not differential preferences of pollinator taxonomic groups, could contribute to clinal variation in a UV floral trait for a generalist‐pollinated plant.

Floral pigmentation patterns provide an example of Gloger’s rule in plants - M. H. Koski; T. L. Ashman (Nature Plants, 2015)
It is shown that Gloger's rule explains patterns of variation in UV-absorbing floral pigmentation in a widespread plant, Argentina anserina (Rosaceae), and UV as an agent of selection and bullseye size as a target increases with proximity to the Equator in both hemispheres.

Archiving primary data: solutions for long-term studies. - James A. Mills; Céline Teplitsky; Daniel T. Blumstein (Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 2015)
The recent trend for journals to require open access to primary data included in publications has been embraced by many biologists, but has caused apprehension amongst researchers engaged in long-term ecological and evolutionary studies. A worldwide survey of 73 principal investigators (Pls) with long-term studies revealed positive attitudes towards sharing data with the agreement or involvement of the PI, and 93% of PIs have historically shared data. Only 8% were in favor of uncontrolled, open access to primary data while 63% expressed serious concern. We present here their viewpoint on an issue that can have non-trivial scientific consequences. We discuss potential costs of public data archiving and provide possible solutions to meet the needs of journals and researchers.

A CASE STUDY OF DATA IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE GUNNISON RIVER BASIN, COLORADO - Rhianna L. Williams (2015)
In the American Southwest, a growing population combined with climate change induced weather pattern changes are creating growing conflict for uses of the over appropriated Colorado River System. Water managers use a variety of tools and data to make decisions at the local and regional level which will impact access for future users. The purpose of this study is to understand how water managers use data and knowledge to manage current and future access to water resources in a water scarce region. A case study of the Gunnison River Basin located within the larger Colorado River Basin was conducted over 14 months. Information was collected in the form of regional documentation, participant observation, and interviews of nine regional water professionals. Gathered data was analyzed throughout the collection process using the theory building and testing methods of grounded theory. Rather than directly informing management, findings indicate that the use of data is mediated by the social institution of water law and its associated social norms, organizations, and bureaucracy.

Solutions to Burnout and Retention as Perceived by County Extension Agents of the Colorado State University Extension System - Amy Harder; Jeff Goodwin; Matt Benge (Journal of Human Sciences and Extension, 2015)
This study explored solutions to the issue of burnout and retention of Extension agents. Extension agents experience burnout for reasons such as long hours, stress, and organizational factors. As Extension administration addresses job satisfaction and performance of Extension employees, burnout and retention issues identified in this study can facilitate efforts to enhance the effectiveness of a statewide Extension program. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory was the theoretical framework for this study. Researchers used the constant-comparative method of analysis to identify recurring themes from the open-ended items of an online-administered survey. Twelve primary themes emerged, including (a) compensation, (b) hiring practices, (c) promotion and advancement within Extension, (d) organizational support regarding agent development, (e) organizational support regarding administration, (f) organizational support regarding colleagues, (g) reporting, (h) recognition, (i) resources, (j) personnel and staffing, (k) evaluation of administration and specialists, and (l) workload. Results suggest that Extension administration should focus on the maintenance factors of compensation, workload, and internal promotion and advancement, as well as motivating factors, to improve retention of Extension agents.

Inferring Regional-Scale Species Diversity from Small-Plot Censuses - J. Kitzes; John Harte (PLOS ONE, 2015)
Estimation of the number of species at spatial scales too large to census directly is a long- standing ecological challenge. A recent comprehensive census of tropical arthropods and trees in Panama provides a unique opportunity to apply an inference procedure for up-scal- ing species richness and thereby make progress toward that goal. Confidence in the under- lying theory is first established by showing that the method accurately predicts the species abundance distribution for trees and arthropods, and in particular accurately captures the rare tail of the observed distributions. The rare tail is emphasized because the shape of the species-area relationship is especially influenced by the numbers of rare species. The infer- OPEN ACCESS ence procedure is then applied to estimate the total number of arthropod and tree species at Citation: Harte J, Kitzes J (2015) Inferring Regional- spatial scales ranging from a 6000 ha forest reserve to all of Panama, with input data only Scale Species Diversity from Small-Plot Censuses. from censuses in 0.04 ha plots. The analysis suggests that at the scale of the reserve there PLoS ONE 10(2): e0117527. doi:10.1371/journal. are roughly twice as many arthropod species as previously estimated. For the entirety of pone.0117527 Panama, inferred tree species richness agrees with an accepted empirical estimate, while Academic Editor: Maura (Gee) Geraldine Chapman, inferred arthropod species richness is significantly below a previous published estimate that University of Sydney, AUSTRALIA has been criticized as too high. An extension of the procedure to estimate species richness Received: August 21, 2014 at continental scale is proposed. Accepted: December 29, 2014 Published: February 23, 2015 Copyright: © 2015 Harte, Kitzes. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any

Using geochemical indicators to distinguish high biogeochemical activity in the subsurface. - A. M. Kenwell (2015)

Does locomotor ability influence flight initiation distance in yellow-bellied marmots? - G. F. Flores; Nathalie Munoz; Daniel T. Blumstein (Ethology, 2015)
Flight initiation distance (FID) is the distance between a potential threat and the point at which a potential prey flees. Animals may modify their FID to compensate for increased risk generated by external/extrinsic factors such as habitat type, visibility, group size, time of year, predator-approach velocity, and distance to burrow, as well as internal/intrinsic factors such as physical condition, body temperature, crypsis, and morphological antipredator defenses. The intrinsic speed at which an animal can escape a predator is a factor that should influence FID. We studied the relationship between an individual's intrinsic escape speed and FID in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) to determine whether marmots compensated for slower escape speeds by fleeing at greater distances. We found no evidence of risk compensation. Rather, we found that slower marmots tolerated closer approaches. This behavioral syndrome may be explained by a coevolution of FID and escape speed in determining an individual's antipredator behavior, an idea upon which we expand.

Environmental drivers of plant community composition in subalpine and alpine fens of the San Juan Mountains, Colorado, USA - Betsy L. H. Bultema; Cooper, David J.; Steingraeber, David A.; Dwire, Kathleen A. (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Fens are a widely distributed type of wetland worldwide and offer vital habitat for plant and animal species in the Rocky Mountains. Fens support a high biodiversity of flora and fauna given the proportionally small space they occupy on the landscape, often serving as refugia for disjunct plant species at the extremes of their ranges. While some literature exists on subalpine fens in the southern Rocky Mountains of the United States, alpine fens in this region remain understudied. Alpine fens are relatively rare in the southern Rocky Mountains and are concentrated within the San Juan Mountains where topography and climate favor peat development in the alpine. While studies of montane and boreal peatlands have identified water chemistry as a main driver of plant community composition, it is unclear whether the same drivers of plant community composition are important in alpine fens in the San Juan Mountains. The goal of this study was to 1.) Describe and classify the vegetation of subalpine and alpine fens and, 2.) Determine underlying environmental variables influencing plant community composition. To do this, I mapped fens within the BLM Gunnison Management Unit (approximately 243,000 hectares). I then visited, verified, and sampled vegetation and environmental data from 33 subalpine and 32 alpine fens. To classify vegetation data into plant communities, I used hierarchical cluster analysis. I used non-metric multidimensional scaling and comparisons of ranked environmental and vegetation distance matrices to investigate relationships between plant community composition and environmental variables. I compared the influence of environmental variables on subalpine and alpine plant community composition with cumulative r² values from linear regressions with NMS axes and Spearman rank correlations between ranked vegetation and environmental distance matrices. I classified 226 stands of vegetation into 11 plant communities that were correlated with elevation and water chemistry variables. Water chemistry variables, particularly pH, EC, and bicarbonate, were more important in structuring vegetation in subalpine than alpine fens. This was in part due to a lower range in values of alpine water chemistry variables. However, lower variance in water chemistry variables did not correspond to decreased plant community diversity in the alpine. To thoroughly explain alpine fen plant community diversity, future studies should consider measuring additional variables, such as soil temperature and temporal variation in water table. Elevation was a relatively important explanatory variable for plant community composition in alpine fens, suggesting that climatic variables are important influences on community composition. Results of this research indicate that the relative importance of environmental variables differs for alpine and subalpine fen plant communities. Thus, future studies examining mountain fen plant community composition should treat alpine and subalpine fen data separately.

Multimodal Integration in Uncertain Environments: A Quantitative Model and Field Experiments with Yellow-bellied Marmots (Marmota flaviventris). - Nathalie Munoz (2015)

Growth, developmental and stress responses of larvae of the clouded sulphur butterfly Colias eriphyle to repeated exposure to high, sub-lethal temperatures - J. K. Higgins; L. B. Buckley; J. G. Kingsolver; H. J. MacLean (Physiological Entomology, 2015)

Wise flies: a pre-dispersal seed predator prefers hermaphrodites over females in the gynodioecious Polemonium foliosissimum - G. L. Clarke; Alison K. Brody (Ecological Entomology, 2015)

Rare-Earth Element mineralization and formation of the Iron Hill carbonatite complex, Gunnison County, Colorado, USA - J.G. Erickson (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)

Assessing community phenotype of Populus tremuloides: the effect of ploidy level on associated arthropod communities. - Matthew J. Hecking (2015)

Group size affects social relationships in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) - L. Hubbard; Adriana A. Maldonado-Chaparro; Daniel T. Blumstein (Behavioral Ecology, 2015)

Studies of minerals from Hall's Valley, Park County, Colorado – Chemistry of cupropavonites (5,5) ( 5,5P) and (4,6) ( 4,6P): crystal structure of natural pavonite and crystal structure of orthorhombic berryite - William G. Mumme; Nick Wilson; Robert W. Gable (Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Abhandlungen, 2015)

Direct and Indirect Consequences of Climate Change on Net Ecosystem Exchange. - P. Meidl (2015)

Response to Bergey and Spaulding - M. L. Bothwell; B. W. Taylor (BioScience, 2015)

Fine-Grained Distribution of a Non-Native Resource Can Alter the Population Dynamics of a Native Consumer - Mifuyu Nakajima; Carol L. Boggs (PloS one, 2015)
New interactions with non-native species can alter selection pressures on native species. Here, we examined the effect of the spatial distribution of a non-native species, a factor that determines ecological and evolutionary outcomes but that is poorly understood, particularly on a fine scale. Specifically, we explored a native butterfly population and a non-native plant on which the butterfly oviposits despite the plant's toxicity to larvae. We developed an individual-based model to describe movement and oviposition behaviors of each butterfly, which were determined by plant distribution and the butterfly's host preference genotype. We estimated the parameter values of the model from rich field data. We simulated various patterns of plant distributions and compared the rates of butterfly population growth and changes in the allele frequency of oviposition preference. Neither the number nor mean area of patches of non-native species affected the butterfly population, whereas plant abundance, patch shape, and distance to the nearest native and non-native patches altered both the population dynamics and genetics. Furthermore, we found a dramatic decrease in population growth rates when we reduced the distance to the nearest native patch from 147 m to 136 m. Thus changes in the non-native resource distribution that are critical to the fate of the native herbivore could only be detected at a fine-grained scale that matched the scale of a female butterfly's movement. In addition, we found that the native butterfly population was unlikely to be rescued by the exclusion of the allele for acceptance of the non-native plant as a host. This study thus highlights the importance of including both ecological and evolutionary dynamics in analyses of the outcome of species interactions and provides insights into habitat management for non-native species.

Quantifying within-season floral trait distributions of flowers in Colorado Rocky Mountain sub-alpine dry meadows. - K. Wyatt (2015)

Stress hormone metabolites predict overwinter survival in yellow-bellied marmots - L. Lin; M. L. Patton; T. W. Wey; Daniel T. Blumstein (Acta Ethologica, 2015)

Do birds differentiate white noise and deterministic chaos? A playback experiment. - J. Kennen (2015)
Evocative sounds are known to elicit heightened responses from receivers across animal taxa. Many species of caregivers specifically have been shown to have increased arousal from infant baboon screams providing a unique conspecific identification for baboon mothers to discriminate their young from nearby infants (Rendall et al. 2009) to women decreasing their parasympathetic drive after exposure to infants crying, impelling them to react and care for the infants (Tkaczyszyn et al. 2012) to infant giant pandas (Ailuropoda melaneuca). Despite them being relatively common, the function of these nonlinearities is less well-understood. One hypothesis suggests that non-linearities function to increase fear and arousal in receivers (Blumstein and Recapet 2009; Slaughter et al., 2013). Playback experiments have been very useful in evaluation of this nonlinearity and fear hypothesis. In them, investigators have used white noise as a substitute for deterministic chaos. Determinstic chaos contains irregular oscillations with patterns of energy that are irregular and widely distributed over frequency bands (Beckers and Cate 2006). In acoustic spectographs, chaos and noise appear superficially similar, but structurally they are different. We designed two experiments to clarify whether American robins (Turdus migratorius) and warbling vireos (Vireo gilvus) discriminate between white noise and deterministic chaos. Playback experiments consisted of broadcasting one of four types of stimuli at a time to a relaxed bird: white noise or deterministic chaos created from either logistic wave form or a Chua oscillator, and one control stimulus, one of four exemplars of Tropical Kingbird (Tyrannus melancholicus) vocalizations. Robins engaged in significantly less relaxed behavior after hearing noise compared to the kingbird treatment, and all noise/non-linearity treatments led to significantly less relaxed behavior than the kingbird treatment (pair-wise comparisons between kingbird and chua chaos. Pairwise comparisons did show that after hearing chua chaos, warbling vireos decreased locomotion significantly compared to kingbird. Our results suggest that American robins and Warbling vireos do not discriminate noise from at least two types of deterministic chaos: chua chaos and logistic chaos, thus indicating that future playback studies can continue to use white noise as a nonlinear stimulus. 3

Plant selection of mycorrhizal symbionts in response to abiotic stress. - M. Garrett (2015)

Bears benefit plants via a cascade with both antagonistic and mutualistic interactions - Joshua B. Grinath; N. C. Underwood; Brian D. Inouye (Ecology Letters, 2015)

Effects of Weather on Mountain White-Crowned Sparrow Reproductive Success - E. Putnam (2015)

Propagating climate and vegetation change through the hydrologic cycle in a mountain headwaters catchment. - C. E. Pribulick (2015)
Prediction of hydrologic response to global climate change is paramount for regions that rely upon snowpack for their dominant water supply. Temperature increases are anticipated to be greater at higher elevations perturbing headwaters systems that provide water to millions of downstream users. In this study, the relationships between climatic change and associated vegetation succession with the corresponding response in hydrologic processes of mountainous terrain are studied in the East River headwaters catchment near Crested Butte, CO. This catchment is emblematic of other headwater systems within the upper Colorado River basin. Therefore, perturbations seen at this study site are likely to occur across the region, altering the water quantity and quality of the Colorado River. Here, we study the effect of climate-induced changes on the hydrologic response of three different characteristic components of the catchment: a steep high-energy mountain system, a medium-grade lower-energy system and a low- grade low-energy meandering floodplain. To capture the surface and subsurface heterogeneity of this headwaters system the basin has been modeled at a 10-meter resolution using ParFlow, a parallel, integrated hydrologic model. This model assesses hydrologic scenarios based on worst-case Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate projections and an estimated worst-case scenario vegetation change observed in a warming experiment conducted in the watershed. Changes in ground evaporation, evapotranspiration (ET) snow water equivalent (SWE), and discharge are analyzed as these catchment characteristics provide useful insight into hydrologic iii response. It was found that each component responded differently depending on its inherent orographic location and geologic features. It was also found that the inclusion of vegetation change enhanced the hydrologic changes from the vegetation or warming scenarios alone. Overall, the results show decreases in discharge, shifts in the timing of peak runoff, and prolonged periods of soil moisture declines, all of which can have negative implications for water quality, quantity and vegetative productivity. iv

Exploring the behavioral rules influencing sociality in a facultatively social species, yellow-bellied marmots - J. Yang (2015)

Investigating Herbivore Relationships to Boechera stricta in a Climate Change Context. - L. Schumm (2015)
Boechera stricta is a mustard that grows naturally throughout a wide range of altitudes in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. B. stricta has a variety of natural herbivores, which makes it an interesting system in which to study how plant-herbivore relationships vary over an elevational gradient. Through this study we begin to characterize the relationships between Boechera stricta and its surrounding insect herbivore community. We sampled the insect community surrounding B. stricta in a collection of quadrats, and analyzed how the diversity and abundance of these insects varied across an elevational gradient. We analyzed the insect community as a whole, and conducted with more pointed analyses focusing on insects in taxonomical groupings known to herbivorize plants. Other variables affecting insect diversity were also taken into account such as the density of plant cover at each site. We found that insect diversity decreases as elevation increases, and that insect diversity increases as plant cover density increases as well. This study has laid important groundwork for future studies on herbivore-B. stricta relationships in the context of climate change.

Effects of experimental warming on herbivory and pathogen loads on subalpine grass species Festuca thurberi, Poa pratensis, and Achnatherum lettermanii - Nisreen Abo-Sido (2015)
Rising global temperatures are predicted to alter community dynamics by shifting species ranges and altering biotic interactions. Herbivory is expected to increase with prolonged growing seasons and heightened metabolic rates; pathogen damage may increase as well. We predict that damage by herbivores and pathogens on subalpine grass species Festuca thurberi, Poa pratensis, and Achnatherum lettermanii will increase with warming. Comparisons of estimated percent herbivory on these species in a meadow containing plots subject to experimental warming by infrared heaters and alternating ambient control plots revealed some evidence of increasing herbivory with warming and, thus, increased vulnerability of plants to the indirect effect of global warming of rising herbivore activity.

Fungal Phytopathogens Decrease Plant-Insect Interactions. - A. Niedweicki (2015)
Rusts are pathogens of rapidly growing plant tissue and are of particular concern in agricultural settings due to their reduction of plant fitness. These phytopathogens depend heavily on abiotic features such as humidity, temperature, and UV strength, and with a changing climate, the rust ranges may be altered in future years and new hosts can be infected. Since this organism is a obligate pathogen changes in host ranges could introduce rusts into new communities and lead to novel interactions. Not much research has been conducted to understand the natural communities of which rusts are a part. Previous research has indicated mixed effects of fungal presence on arthropods associated with plants. Decreases in herbivory have been noted as well as increase in pollinator attraction. This study aims to elucidate natural patterns of insect herbivory and pollination, and the effects on plant fitness utilizing infected Helianthella quinquenervis. Results indicate significant decreases in herbivory on infected plants, as well as reduced number of flowers produced by infected plants. Pollination rates also decreased with infection as pollinators spent less time and visited fewer flowers on infected plants.

How does relative refuge angle influence escape behavior: an empirical test with yellow-bellied marmot. - K. Wrenford (2015)
Flight initiation distance, or FID, is the distance between a predator and its prey at which the prey decides to flee. FID is influenced by several internal and external factors, which influence the potential costs and benefits of escape. For refuging prey, their path to a refuge may force them to get closer to the prey or permit them to flee the approaching predator. If the prey assesses the risk of fleeing towards a predator to be greater than when fleeing away from a predator, FID when fleeing towards a predator to a refuge would be expected to be larger. The relative position between predator, prey, and a refuge creates an angle called the relative refuge angle, or RRA. A recent model uses these variables to predict FID. Using yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris), we evaluated the efficacy of this model in predicting FID, and then asked how much variation in FID was explained by RRA. We found, that although the model successfully predicted FID in our data, RRA had almost no effect on the overall variation in FID. Therefore, RRA may not be an important factor to marmots making escape decisions.

Gender inequality in predispersal seed predation contributes to female seed set advantage in a gynodioecious species - G. L. Clarke; Alison K. Brody (Ecology, 2015)
Most flowering plants are hermaphrodites. However, in gynodioecious species, some members of the population are male‐sterile and reproduce only by setting seed, while others gain fitness through both male and female function. How females compensate for the loss of male function remains unresolved for most gynodioecious species. Here, as with many plants, fitness differences may be influenced by interactions with multiple species. However, whether multiple species interactions result in gender‐specific fitness differences remains unknown. Using observational data from 2009–2010, we quantified seed set of the two sex morphs of Polemonium foliosissimum and asked how it is affected by pollination, and seed predation from a dipteran predispersal seed predator (Anthomyiidae: Hylemya sp.). We assessed seed production and losses to predation in 27 populations for one year and in six populations for a second year. Females set significantly more seed than did hermaphrodites in both years. Of the fitness components we assessed, including the number of flowers per plant, fruit set, seeds/fruit, and proportion of fruits destroyed by Hylemya, only fruit destruction differed significantly between the sexes. In one year, seeds/fruit and predation had a stronger effect on seed set for hermaphrodites than for females. Because predispersal seed predators do not pollinate flowers, their effects may depend on successful pollination of flowers on which they oviposit. To examine if genders differed in pollen limitation and seed predation and/or their interactive effects, in 2011 we hand‐pollinated flowers and removed seed predator eggs in a fully factorial design. Both sexes were pollen limited, but their degree of pollen limitation did not differ. However, predation reduced seed set more for hermaphrodites than for females. We found no significant interaction between hand pollen and seed predation, and no interaction between hand pollination and gender. Our results suggest that while interactions with both pollinators and seed predators affect reproductive success, floral enemies can cause inequality in seed set between genders. The next step is to understand how the seed set advantage affects long‐term fitness and persistence of females in gynodioecious populations.

Are social attributes associated with alarm calling propensity? - H. Fuong; Adriana A. Maldonado-Chaparro; Daniel T. Blumstein (Behavioral Ecology, 2015)
Emitting alarm calls may directly benefit individuals if callers have an increased chance of surviving, if calling increases the caller’s status, or if calling functions through reciprocity. Although previous studies have examined the costs and benefits of alarm calling, few have examined how an individual’s social position can influence the propensity to emit calls. An individual’s position in its social network may vary and individuals differ in the strength and degree to which they are connected to others. We hypothesized that this variation could influence the rate at which individuals emit calls. We examined how various social attributes (degree centrality, closeness centrality, eigenvector centrality, strength, and embeddedness) were related to the likelihood that yellow-bellied marmots ( Marmota flaviventris ) emitted calls. To do so, we first defined 2 principle components—“popularity” and “relationship strength”—and used generalized linear mixed effects models to explain both the natural rate of alarm calling and the rate of trap-induced calling. We found that the natural rate of alarm calling increased for marmots that were less popular (i.e., involved in fewer connections with other marmots) and that the rate of trap-induced calling increased for marmots involved in weaker relationships. These findings refute the reciprocity hypothesis. However, less popular marmots could be seeking to enhance their social status by calling, or they could be deterring predators without the aid of others. Similarly, marmots in traps are faced with an imminent personal threat. Thus, marmots in weaker relationships that cannot rely on other marmots may call to deter predators.

Nectar yeasts in Delphinium nuttallianum (Ranunculaceae) and their effects on nectar quality - R. N. Schaeffer; R. L. Vannette; Rebecca E. Irwin (Fungal Ecology, 2015)

To what extent does road dust affect sexual reproduction in different plant species? - G. Casco (2015)

Effects of Alpine Shrub Cover on Territorial Male White-Crown Sparrows Densities. - E. Nault (2015)
Avian populations at high elevation are well-adapted to extreme and variable abiotic conditions. Species have adapted efficient foraging strategies, as well as well-timed nest incubation patterns. These behavioral traits are essential in order for parents to meet their metabolic needs while simultaneously having a successful reproductive season. Alpine vegetation structure can be seen as a determinant for a species’ success, or overall abundance due to gap structure and efficient foraging opportunities. Alpine environments consist largely of fragmented vegetation due to steep elevation gradients. Yet, alpine bird populations historically have preferred dense and protective vegetative structures. This study investigates the relationship at singing male white-crowned sparrow densities and percent willow (Salix spp.) cover between three alpine sites located across the Elk Mountain Range, Colorado. Post-migratory sparrow males pair with a female, breed, and establish delineated territory borders by singing. For the mountain white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha; MWCS), space availability between willow thickets may act as a driving factor in the species’ overall abundance. A negative correlation between number of singing males and percent willow cover indicates alpine populations of MWCS actually prefer fragmented willow cover. Possible explanations for this finding could include (1) greater accessibility to dietary resources between willow thickets, (2) greater solar exposure and thermal warming for a nest not nestled in a dense willow’s canopy cover, or (3) an overall decrease in predatory risk and edge effects within alpine environments. This study holds important climate change implications. By analyzing changes in vegetation structure over time we can determine if vegetative health is ultimately affecting the adaptability of mountain white-crowned sparrow populations. 3

Do yellow-bellied marmots perceive enhanced predation risk when they are farther from safety?: an experimental study - A. M. Anderson; R. Monclus; Daniel T. Blumstein (Ethology, 2015)

A restraining device to aid identification of bees by digital photography - J. L. Zung; Jonathan R. Thompson (Journal of Pollination Ecology, 2015)

Male bumble bees are important pollinators of a late-blooming plant - James D. Thomson; Jane E. Ogilvie (Arthropod-Plant Interactions, 2015)
Overall, male bumble bees are common and capable pollinators of G. parryi and in some years and sites could be more important than workers, and animal sexes may differ in their pollinator performance in other systems.

Effects of proximity to riparian zones on avian species richness and abundance in montane aspen woodlands. - J. R. Glass; C. H. Floyd (Journal of Field Ornithology, 2015)
Riparian zones often provide more food or nesting resources than surrounding ecosystems and thus support more species or a greater abundance of birds. However, the extent to which the positive effects of riparian zones extend into adjoining habitats has rarely been investigated. We examined bird species richness and abundance in aspen (Populus tremuloides) woodlands of the upper East River Valley in Colorado, a region with extensive stands of aspen located upslope from riparian zones dominated by willows (Salix spp.). Our objective was to determine how species richness and abundance in aspen stands located closer to riparian zones compared to that of aspen stands farther away. To control for elevation effects, we conducted point counts for birds and examined the effects of riparian proximity on avian species richness and abundance in three elevation belts (low, 2840–2875 m; middle, 2940–2960 m; and high, 3040–3060 m). We determined riparian proximity by measuring distances from each census site to the nearest body of water and to the nearest patch of willow. Proximity to major willow patches (≥6500 m2) had a stronger influence on species richness and abundance than did proximity to water or smaller patches of willows. Total species richness and abundance significantly increased with proximity to major willow patches at low elevation sites only. This relationship was driven by a greater prevalence of riparian-nesting species at lower elevation sites, where aspens were generally closer to riparian zones. The positive effects of willows diminished with abrupt changes in elevation. Our results highlight the importance of protecting willows around riparian zones in valley bottoms where habitat destruction caused by human land use is most prominent. Efectos de la proximidad a la zona riparia sobre la riqueza y abundancia de especies de aves en bosques montanos de álamo En muchos casos las zonas riparias proveen una mayor cantidad de alimentos o recursos para la anidación que los ecosistemas circundantes. Por lo tanto tienen un mayor numero de especies o una mayor abundancia de aves. Sin embargo, la medida en que los efectos positivos de las zonas riparias se extiende hacia hábitats adjuntos ha sido raramente explorada. Examinamos la riqueza de aves y la abundancia en bosques de álamo (Populus tremuloides) en la parte alta del “East River Valley” en Colorado, una región con poblaciones extensas de álamo ubicadas en cerca de zonas riparias dominadas por sauces (Salix spp.). Nuestro objetivo era determinar el cambio en la riqueza y abundancia de especies de aves en los bosques de álamo de acuerdo con la distancia a la zona riparia. Para contralar por los efectos de la elevación, realizamos puntos de conteo para aves y examinamos los efectos de la proximidad a zonas riparias sobre la riqueza y abundancia de aves en tres franjas altitudinales (baja, 2840–2875 m, medio 2940–2960 m y alto, 3040–3060 m). Tomamos la distancia desde cada punto de censo hasta el cuerpo de agua mas cercano como la proximidad a la zona riparia. La proximidad a los parches de sauces grandes (≥6500 m2), tuvo una mayor influencia en la riqueza y abundancia de especies que la proximidad a los cuerpos de agua o a los parches de sauces mas pequeños. La riqueza y abundancia total, incrementó significativamente con la proximidad a los parches de sauce grandes, solamente en sitios de baja elevación. Esta relación estuvo determinada por una mayor prevalencia de especies que anidan en zonas riparias en los sitios de baja elevación, donde los álamos están generalmente mas cerca de las zonas riaprias. El efecto positivo de los sauces disminuyo con los cambios abruptos en elevación. Nuestros resultados resaltan la importancia de proteger los sauces alrededor de regiones riparias en la base de los valles, donde la destrucción del hábitat causada a causa de efectos antrópicos es mas prominente. Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.

Flies and Flowers III: Ecology of Foraging and Pollination - P. G. Kevan; B. M. H. Larson; David W. Inouye (Journal of Pollination Ecology, 2015)
Diptera are important flower visitors and pollinators for many plant species and in a variety of habitats. Although Diptera are not as well studied as other groups of pollinators, there is a growing literature that we review here about the ecology of their foraging behaviour and their effectiveness as pollinators. We consider (1) how their foraging is constrained by the interaction among body size, colour, and environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, wind, and light; (2) what is known about their foraging at scales ranging from their movements between flowers on a plant, between individuals in a population, and among species in a community (i.e., constancy); and (3) the evidence for effects of intra- and interspecific competition on foraging. We conclude with a discussion of the effectiveness of Diptera as pollinators. The available data suggest that Diptera exhibit many of the same foraging behaviours as other flower visitors and that they are effective pollinators in both natural and agricultural ecosystems.

Effects of early snowmelt and frost on plant-pollinator interactions. - L. Howe-Kerr (2015)
As a result of climate change, plants are experiencing shifts in flowering phenology due to early snowmelt, and thus becoming more susceptible to damage from spring frost events. These direct effects of snowmelt and frost on plants can indirectly impact plant- pollinator interactions, yet few studies have examined these indirect effects. At the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, we conducted a series of experiments to answer the following questions: 1) Does variation in the phenology of flowering plants affect pollinator visitation rate? and 2) How do species and community level plant-pollinator responses to early snowmelt and frost damage compare? At our study site, we had 40 2m2 plots assigned to one of four treatment types: 1) early snowmelt and frost, 2) early snowmelt no frost, 3) natural snowmelt and frost, and 4) natural snowmelt and no frost, Pollinator observations were conducted over 8 weeks and visitation rates were compared among treatment type. We found that early snow removal plots had higher pollinator visitation rates. Further, frost treatment had no effect on pollinator visitation rate overall, but affected certain early blooming flower species. Overall, we found that early snowmelt and frost affect plant species differently; some species, and therefore some plant-pollinator interactions, are more resilient to changes in flowering phenology than others.

Population dynamics and competitive outcome derive from resource allocation statistics: the governing influence of the distinguishability of individuals - Y. J. Zhang; John Harte (Theoretical Population Biology, 2015)
The theory clarifies the condition for the energetic equivalence rule (EER) to hold, and provides a statistical explanation for the importance of species functional variation in determining population dynamics and coexistence patterns.

Floral herbivory: a possible mechanism maintaining a flower color polymorphism in a selfing species, Boechera stricta. - Michaela Keefe (2015)
Many studies have shown that pollinators are largely responsible for changing and maintaining flower color morph frequencies in nature. However, the preferences of pollinators do not always reflect observed frequencies in nature, especially in self-pollinating species. Thus, non-pollinator forces could be acting to change color morph frequencies. To test this hypothesis I used two species of Lepidopteran larvae and exposed them to floral and foliar tissue from white and purple Boechera stricta plants using choice and no-choice tests. I also observed natural populations for damage to leaves and reproductive structures. In the choice and no-choice tests, I found that both generalist larvae and specialist on Brassicaceae larvae preferred tissue from white over purple color morphs. In nature there was no difference in damage to plants of either color across all sites. Observed natural damage did not depend on the frequency of the purple morph, nor did frequencies differ between sites. There was also no relationship between florivory and folivory. As specialist and generalists differed in their preferences, this suggests that herbivores may be able to alter color morph frequencies in nature if they have the ability to distinguish among a plant’s secondary chemicals. These findings may provide insight into herbivore preference affecting observed color morph frequencies in nature of a selfing species.

Why doesn't nectar robbing decrease seed set in some bee-pollinated plants? - Janice Y. Park (2015)
Herbal impact on nectar robbing is species specific by pollinator species (Maloof and Inouye 2014). Unlike hummingbird pollinated plants, some bee-pollinated species does not suffer reproductive loss by nectar robbing (Maloof 2001, Mayer et al. 2014, Maloof and Inouye 2014). This observational study is investigating the probability that Bombus.sp forage either Mertensia ciliata or Corydalis caseana legitimately at least once before the flower is robbed. I also measured population-label robbing rate. I bagged the flower two days before, and on the days of experiment I waited in front of the uncovered flowers in order to voice- record Bumble bees’ visit type (legitimate vs. robbing). Furthermore, I conducted transects on the flower patch, and every time I saw the bee I recorded their visit type. Bombus sp. (B.flavifrons, B. mixtus. B. bifarius, B.appositus) was very likely visit legitimately first before it robbed (94.12 %, n=32), than robbing first (5.88%, n=2). Populational robbing rate was 8.98% (n=167), 35.29% (n=34) for C.caseana and 6.77%(n=133) for M. ciliata. Though this is observational study, I speculate that Bombus sp. is able to recognize flowers with low nectar volume. Unlike hummingbird that avoid low nectar flowers(Irwin 2000), I am guessing bumble bee may rob the flower to extract last bit of nectar. Therefore, nectar robbing may be more of a “Plan B” then “Contract Breaking” to both Bombus sp. and studied plant species, for flowers may already receive pollination, and Bombus sp. could extract last bit of energy.

Roles of Stridulation in Nicophorus investigator. - V. Ortiz (2015)
Stridulation is a key behavior to determining survival in Nicrophorus investigator. In this paper, the roles it plays in competition over a carcass, burying process, and larval development have been studied. Their ability to stridulate was manipulated through clipping part of their plectra and they were given simulations that required some form of communication. Stridulation is vital to effectively communicate certain dominate behaviors. The experiments suggests that it is necessary to decrease the time it takes to winning a carcass in order to complete the beginning stages of the Nicrophorine life cycle.

Elevational and temporal variation in Ipomopsis floral and vegetative traits. - G. Trujillo (2015)
Exploring the geographical and temporal movement of hybrid zones provides practical evidence for conservation biologists investigating the dynamics of species invasions (Buggs 2007). Genetically based clines in floral traits can also help us to understand potential adaptation in responses to climate change. We re-measured floral traits in Ipomopsis in 12 populations along an elevational gradient in Poverty Gulch, Gunnison County that was first measured in 1991 and 1992. Corolla length increased by 4.4 mm on average and corolla width by 0.11mm on average between 1992 and 2015. In a common garden experiment, we also found a genetic and environmental basis for variation in corolla length and anther position. Since there is a genetic component to the variation, the change in corolla length over 23 years could represent an evolutionary change rather than just a response to environment. Unlike corolla length, corolla width did not change systematically over time when supplementary data from additional years were compared. Additionally, anther position varied significantly only at the lower elevational sites between 1992 and 2015. Floral trait variation in this hybrid zone involves a complex assortment of selection mediated by multiple pollinators and varied environmental conditions that may be the cause of differential change in floral traits throughout the cline.

Improving our chemistry: Challenges and opportunities in the interdisciplinary study of floral volatiles - Jonathan R. Thompson; Robert A. Raguso; Diane R. Campbell (Natural Products Reports, 2015)
Here we review next-generation questions in the study of plant–pollinator interactions mediated by floral volatiles, and the potential for renewed collaboration between biologists and chemists in answering such questions.

Environmentally induced phenotypic variation in wild yellow-bellied marmots - Adriana A. Maldonado-Chaparro; Kenneth B. Armitage; Julien G. A. Martin; Daniel T. Blumstein (Journal of Mammalogy, 2015)
Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an individual to modify its phenotype according to the conditions it experiences, is a source of between-individual variation and a mechanism by which individuals can cope with environmental change. Plasticity is expected to evolve in response to environmental heterogeneity, such as seasonality and year-toyear variation. We aimed to characterize patterns of phenotypic change in morphological (body mass), life-history (reproductive success and litter size), and social (embeddedness) traits of female yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) in response to climatic and social variation. We used data collected over 36 years on a population of yellow-bellied marmots studied in Colorado. We used mixed effect models to explore phenotypically plastic responses and tested for individual variation in mean trait values (i.e., intercept) and in plasticity (i.e., slope). All examined traits were plastic, and the population's average plastic response often differed between spatially distinct colonies that varied systematically in timing of snowmelt, among age classes, and between females with different previous reproductive experiences. Moreover, we showed individual differences in June mass and pup mass plasticity. We suggest that plasticity plays a key role buffering the effects of continuous changes in environmental conditions.

Identifying PCR primers to facilitate molecular phylogenetics in Caddisflies (Trichoptera) - J. M. Marcus; B. S. McCullagh; S. A. Wissinger (Zoological Systematics, 2015)

Turnover and reliability of flower communities in extreme environments: Insights from long-term phenology data sets - T. M. Crimmins; K. L. Vanderbilt; K. W. Wright; C. David Bertelsen; David W. Inouye (Journal of Arid Environments, 2015)
Looking at the entire flower community as a resource for foraging pollinators, it is found that flowers are an unreliable resource, especially in unpredictable environments.

Utilization of naturalized mustard Thlaspi arvense by insect enemies. - C. Cerilla (2015)

How does dust affect pollination in Ipomopsis aggregata? - M. Diaz (2015)

How do distributions of belowground grass-fungal symbioses change over altitudinal gradients in the Colorado Rocky Mountains? - K. Clausen (2015)
Fungal symbionts are pervasive and crucial components of terrestrial ecosystems. They can often reduce the effects of stressors such as drought and heat and can increase nutrient and water uptake for plants. Because of these roles, fungal symbionts may be important in mitigating the stressors of climate change. Because plants will likely move up in elevation in search of more favorable environments as climate change occurs, altitudinal gradients can be used to model the effects of climate change. We aimed to gain an understanding of the distribution of fungal symbionts over altitudinal gradients in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. We collected roots from 14 different grass species over 6 altitudinal gradients and quantified colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, fine arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, dark septate endophytes, and saprotrophs. The distribution of fungal symbionts over altitudinal gradients is not well understood and many studies focus on only one host species, one fungal group, or use only one gradient. We looked at multiple host species, fungal groups, gradients, and variables in an attempt to isolate the most important factors in determining distributions of fungal symbionts. We found that colonization patterns with altitude vary by host and many other factors may play important roles in determining the distribution of fungal symbionts.

The next century of ecology - David W. Inouye (Science, 2015)
The science of ecology is about relationships—among organisms and habitats, on all scales—and how they provide information that helps us better understand our world. In the past 100 years, the field has moved from observations to experiments to forecasting. Next week, the Ecological Society of America (ESA), the world's largest ecological society, celebrates its centennial in Baltimore, an opportunity to reflect on the field's past and future. The gathering of international scientists, policy-makers, and students will not only explore the knowledge in hand, but consider what else is needed to chart a course over the next century in which humanity sustains and even improves the relationships that underpin life on Earth.

Correlating road dust with reproduction of Ipomopsis aggregate. - J. Solverson (2014)
Roads potentially impact nearly one-fifth of the continental United States. Runoff, traffic disturbance, and maintenance associated with roads can affect both the abiotic and biotic features of roadside ecosystems. Species along unpaved roads are particularly susceptible to road dust effects. Plant physiology, such as gas exchange and overall productivity, is found to deteriorate in increased dust conditions. However, few studies have examined how dust influences plant reproduction. In this study, I examined how road dust impacts pollen delivery, pollen adhesion, and the translation of pollen to seed in Rocky Mountain populations of Ipomopsis aggregata. However, no stage of reproduction in I. aggregata was correlated with different dusting treatments, perhaps because visitation rates and pollen loads were high from high levels of pollinator activity. This study highlights the importance of temporal variation in future studies of road dust effects on plant reproduction.

Coyotes, deer, and wildflowers: diverse evidence points to a trophic cascade - S. R. Arozqueta; A. N. Pistoia; B. D. Castro-Escobar; R. L. Pickens; Mary V. Price; Nickolas M. Waser; Daniel T. Blumstein (Naturwissenschaften, 2014)
Judging from two palatable wildflower species whose seed crop and seedling recruitment were greatly reduced near the field station, the coyote–deer–wildflower trophic cascade has the potential to influence plant community composition.

Functional trait space and the latitudinal diversity gradient - C. A. Lamanna; C. Violle; Brian J. Enquist; Benjamin Blonder (PNAS, 2014)
SignificanceWe present a conceptual framework for testing theories for the latitudinal gradient of species richness in terms of variation in functional diversity at the alpha, beta, and gamma scales. We compared ecological community theory with large-scale observational data of tree species richness and functional diversity. We found that the patterns of functional trait diversity are not consistent with any one theory of species diversity. These conflicting results indicate that none of the broad classes of biodiversity theory considered here is alone able to explain the latitudinal gradient of species diversity in terms of functional trait space.

Aboveground and belowground traits of dominant and sub-dominant species along an elevational gradient. - J. Gutierrez (2014)

Beyond the species-area relationship: Improving macroecological extinction estimates. - J. Kitzes; John Harte (Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 2014)

Do Stream Mayflies Exhibit Trade-Offs Between Food Acquisition and Predator Avoidance Behaviors? - S. A. Hernandez; B. L. Peckarsky (Freshwater Science, 2014)
Organisms often experience trade-offs between behaviors necessary for food acquisition and predator avoidance. In mesocosms and microcosms, we manipulated the risk and resource environments of grazing mayflies (Baetis bicaudatus) common in streams near the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (RMBL) in western Colorado, USA. We exposed mayflies to treatments with or without chemical cues from predatory brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and high or low levels of benthic algal resources to test the nonconsumptive effects of predators and food availability on grazer foraging behavior, predator-avoidance behavior, growth rates, and the effect of grazers on accrual of algal food resources. Total drift (daytime + nighttime) of Baetis was significantly reduced under conditions of fish cues and high food levels. However, daytime drift, a risky food-search behavior, was negligible in all cases except the no-fish-cue/low-food treatment. Therefore, predator-induced nocturnal periodicity of drift behavior was influenced by variation in food levels. At low-food levels, Baetis growth rates and grazer effect on algal accrual were reduced, but neither measure of grazer performance (growth rates nor grazer impacts) was affected by fish cues or their interaction with food levels. We conclude that mayflies faced with potential trade-offs between food acquisition and predator-avoidance behaviors exhibit risky behavior (high daytime drift) only when predator-risk cues are absent and resources are low. Moreover, we observed no short-term costs of predator-induced suppression of foraging movements under low-resource conditions. These results imply that previously observed negative effects of trout on size and fecundity of mature Baetis are not explained by slower growth rates.

The flush early and avoid the rush hypothesis holds after accounting for spontaneous behavior - D. S. M. Samia; W. E. Cooper; Dana M. Williams; Daniel T. Blumstein (Behavioral Ecology, 2014)
When approached by a predator, prey make economic decisions between remaining where they are and obtaining benefits from their current activity or leaving and enhancing their safety. The "flush early and avoid the rush" hypothesis suggests that animals that flee to escape approaching threats flee soon after they become alert to an approaching predator so as to reduce any costs incurred by ongoing monitoring of the predator. This hypothesis has been supported by several studies, but some researchers argue the relationship may be partially or entirely a consequence of bouts of spontaneous vigilance and/or bouts of spontaneous locomotion (vigilance or locomotion that occur when the animal is unaffected by a predator), rather than an economic decision related to the approaching predator. If this were true, spontaneous vigilance might incorrectly be recorded as alert distance (predator–prey distance when the prey becomes aware of and begins to monitor the predator) and spontaneous locomotion might be incorrectly recorded as flight initiation distance (predator–prey distance when escape begins). To evaluate these potential effects, we recorded the intervals between bouts of spontaneous vigilance and locomotion by yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris). We used these baseline rates to conduct a series of alert distance–flight initiation distance regressions after removing potentially spurious observations recorded as alert distance or flight initiation distance. Although spontaneous vigilance and spontaneous locomotion may lead to artifactual increases in flight initiation distance as alert distance increases, the fundamental relationship remains after effects of spontaneous movements have been removed, supporting the flush early and avoid the rush hypothesis. We tested a key challenge of the "flush early and avoid the rush" (FEAR) hypothesis; our results provide strong support for the hypothesis.

Responses of high-altitude graminoids and fungal fungi to 20 years of experimental warming - Kenneth D. Whitney; Stephanie N. Kivlin; Mary V. Price; Jennifer A. Rudgers; Nickolas M. Waser; John Harte (Ecology, 2014)

Long-term effects of litter sex ratio on female reproduction in two iteroparous mammals - D. von Holst; H. G. Rodel; R. Monclus; Daniel T. Blumstein (Functional Ecology, 2014)

Influence of elevation on the sexual dimorphic gap in mountain white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha). - C. Welke (2014)
This study examined sexual dimorphism and dichromatism in mountain white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha) and how it changes over an elevational gradient. Birds living in high elevation habitats are subject to harsh climatic conditions and a shorter breeding season, which affects how many MWCS can inhabit the area, how females select a mate, and how much energy for parental care is required for both males and females to acquire reproductive success. This increased parental effort requirement then has an impact on sexual selection pressures on males and on individual fitness. Mountain white-crowned sparrows were trapped with potter traps and mist nets at low (2962m) and high elevations (3240m) and measurements taken on wing, retrices, tarsus, and culmen length as well as crown stripe width and then compared between three pools of male and female pairs: 1) All birds caught during this study randomly paired from low elevation compared to high elevation, 2) Potentially breeding pairs caught in the same low elevation locations compared to high elevation, and 3) Confirmed nesting pairs compared between low and high elevation sites. Male morphological feature size was also compared across increasing elevation. No significant differences in dimorphism were found for the paired MWCS, but a negative correlation was detected in male crown ratio proportion (R2 = 0.04, P = 0.08). This trend suggests that sexual dichromatism in MWCS males inversely correlates with elevation based on reduced sexual selection pressures and increased parental care requirements at higher elevations

Plant community light efficiency: measuring light response as a function of both photosynthesis irradiance. - J. Vaverka (2014)
Light response is a unique plant trait that is caused by a species level adaptation to a particular light environment and leaf morphology. By ignoring individuals and focusing on communities as a whole, I was better able to understand how irradiance levels shape plant life. I measured some key characteristics of light responses: dark respiration, maximum rate of photosynthesis, and light compensation point as functions of light environment, reduced light environment, and leaf traits. The leaf area of the dominant species has a strong relationship to light compensation point and the maximum rate of photosynthesis of the community. Leaf mass per area had a negative correlation to dark respiration rates. The association between the leaf traits and light response characteristics demonstrated how communities respond to differences in irradiance levels.

Aging, lifespan, and energetics under adult dietary restriction in Lepidoptera - A. Perez; Carol L. Boggs (Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 2014)

Dynamics and structure of a native Pieris population in the presence of a non-native, toxic larval host plant - A. Cummings; J. Bowsher; F. S. Chew; Mifuyu Nakajima; Carol L. Boggs (Journal of the Lepidopterists Society, 2014)
There have been reports of butterflies that oviposit on non-native plants that do not support the development of the larvae, and the fitness cost of this behavior has been estimated in one such case. However, the long-term consequences of this fitness cost for the population dynamics of such butterflies have not been studied. Here we report changes over 40 years in a population of Pieris macdunnoughii (Lepidoptera, Pieridae; formerly Pieris napi macdunnoughii Remington), which oviposits on a lethal, non-native plant, Thlaspi arvense (Brassicaceae), as well as on suitable native hosts. Mark-release-recapture (MRR) studies conducted at four intervals over 40 years showed no significant trends across years in population structure or dynamics, including estimated population density and temporal changes in the number of newly emerged individuals within a year. The estimated daily residence rate differed between the sexes. However, male estimated daily residence rate showed no significant change across years. Female residence rate was higher in the 2000s than in 1971; data were insufficient to calculate a residence rate in 1972. The average flight distance of female dispersants changed across years, but not as expected based on potential flight distance and with no clear pattern. Our detailed observations on female flights at a local scale showed that flight segments varied among different habitat types defined by aridity. Thus, although we see habitat effects on behavior, we did not detect any significant changes in P. macdunnoughii population dynamics and large-scale structure across four decades, a century after the plant's introduction.

On theory in ecology - P. Marquet; John Harte (BioScience, 2014)
We argue for expanding the role of theory in ecology to accelerate scientific progress, enhance the ability to address environmental challenges, foster the development of synthesis and unification, and improve the design of experiments and large-scale environmental-monitoring programs. To achieve these goals, it is essential to foster the development of what we call efficient theories, which have several key attributes. Efficient theories are grounded in first principles, are usually expressed in the language of mathematics, make few assumptions and generate a large number of predictions per free parameter, are approximate, and entail predictions that provide well-understood standards for comparison with empirical data. We contend that the development and successive refinement of efficient theories provide a solid foundation for advancing environmental science in the era of big data.